The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, a recent invader to Hawaii, is impacting coffee growers by reducing yields and quality and increasing production costs. Monitoring strategies are needed to assess infestations and where control operations are warranted, and evaluate their effectiveness. To develop and validate a fixed-precision sequential sampling plan, an intensive CBB sampling programme was conducted in 17 small farms in Kona and Kau districts in the Big Island in 2016/17. At each location, 30 trees/ha were monitored at 2–4 week intervals. Results show that the CBB has an aggregated spatial distribution based on Taylor's power law parameters. According to Green's stop line formula, between 6 and 50 coffee branches per ha (sample unit) are required to estimate infestation rates of 1.5–2.5% infested green berries (suggested economic threshold) with a precision fixed at 10 to 25%. Concurrently, a modified strategy was tested on 14 farms, in which only infested green berries (not total) was counted. The standard and modified sampling methods were highly correlated (R2 ≥ 0.98), while the modified approach required on average only 35 min (27% less time) to complete, with an additional 24 min taken to observe the position of the CBB inside the berry. Our data also show that berry infestation rates of CBB prior to harvest were a good predictor of the total defects resulting in processed green coffee from these farms (Pearson's r coefficient of 0.82). Our findings support improved sampling for the CBB under Hawaiian conditions using a simpler and faster monitoring strategy based on counting green infested berries.

The aim of this study was to verify the occurrence of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), and to evaluate the population fluctuation of the pest in the Brazilian Cerrado (Federal District). The study was conducted, between November 2014 and October 2015, at Embrapa Cerrados (Planaltina/DF, Brazil) in an irrigated conilon coffee production area. In November 2014, 120 samples (ten berries/sample) were collected from berries that had fallen on the ground from the previous harvest. Between November 2014 and October 2015, insects were collected weekly, using traps (polyethylene terephthalate bottles) baited with ethyl alcohol (98 GL), ethyl alcohol (98 GL) with coffee powder, or molasses. Between January and July 2015, samples were collected fortnightly from 92 plants (12 berries per plant). All samples were evaluated for the presence of adult coffee berry borers. Samples from the previous harvest had an attack incidence of 72.4%. The baited traps captured 4062 H. hampei adults, and showed no statistical difference in capture efficiency among the baits. Pest population peaked in the dry season, with the largest percentage of captured adults occurring in July (31.0%). An average of 18.6% of the collected berries was attacked by the borer and the highest percentage incidence was recorded in July (33.2%). Our results suggest that the coffee berry borer, if not properly managed, could constitute a limiting factor for conilon coffee production in the Brazilian Cerrado.

A participatory project was conducted with small-scale coffee growers from Quindío Department, Colombia. In 34 coffee lots in three municipalities, growers implemented an integrated management programme against the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, based on improved cultural harvesting and sanitation practices (to remove breeding habitats) and releases of exotic parasitoids. Growers released over 10 million Cephalonomia stephanoderis and 5 million Prorops nasuta (both Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) over 2 years. Populations of the CBB declined from a range of 7–14% infested berries (Quimbaya), 10–13% (Montenegro) and 15–48% (Buenavista) prior to the integrated pest management programme, to an average of 2.1 ± 0.2% infested berries in Químbaya, 3.5 ± 0.2% in Montenegro and 2.8 ± 2.1% in Buenavista, over the following 25 months. Damage to parchment coffee similarly declined during this period. Six months after the final release of parasitoids had been made, we found both parasitoid species established in all three municipalities. However, P. nasuta were recovered more frequently (in 71.4% of lots where they were previously released) compared with C. stephanoderis (recovered in 30.8% of release lots). Average parasitism rates remained low, i.e. 3.7% for P. nasuta and 2.9% for C. stephanoderis. This low rate was probably due to the frequent manual removal of mature berries containing developing parasitoid larvae. In addition, the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana was observed on average on 9.5% adult CBB in Montenegro, compared with mean infection rates of 4.3 and 4.4% in Quimbaya and Buenavista, respectively. Cultural harvesting and sanitation is an important component of CBB control, although it may limit the impact of the pest's parasitoids.

Cephalonomia stephanoderis and Prorops nasuta are two bethylid wasps released into several Latin American countries for classical biological control of coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, the most serious insect pest of coffee worldwide. Recent studies on the host location behaviour of these parasitoids have shown that females of both species are attracted to volatile compounds released by immature stages and dust and frass of H. hampei. In this study, we investigated the role of the contact chemicals present in dust and frass of H. hampei on the behaviour of P. nasuta and C. stephanoderis females. Parasitoids remained longer on patches treated with methanol extracts than on acetone and hexane extracts. Females spent more time on the patch treated with the methanol extract of dust and frass than on the patches treated with the methanol extract of dry coffee and methanol control. The concentration of the methanol extracts from dust and frass influenced the locomotory activity of parasitoids of both species. The time that females spent in the patch tended to increase as the concentration of the methanol extracts increased. A further experiment aimed to identify other behavioural descriptors and gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the response of parasitoids to methanol extracts was performed. Females of both species spent more time, covered more distance, turned more (per unit time and per unit distance), and decreased their speed when they contacted patches treated with methanol extracts in comparison to patches treated with methanol control.

The host location behaviour of two closely related bethylid parasitoids was investigated under laboratory conditions. Although both species of parasitoid attack the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, they differ in their diet breadth. In Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, we investigated the behavioural responses of Cephalonomia stephanoderis (Betrem), a parasitoid with a narrower diet breadth, and Cephalonomia hyalinipennis (Ashmead), a parasitoid with a wider diet breadth, to the coffee–CBB complex volatiles. The results revealed that the responses differed for the two species. In single- and dual-choice tests, C. stephanoderis was attracted to volatiles emitted by CBB-infested coffee berries, dust/frass and CBB immature stages, whereas C. hyalinipennis was not attracted to any cues from plant–host complex offered.

The coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) is the most serious pest of the world's most valuable tropical export crop. Since the last review on this insect was published six years ago, many new studies have contributed to an improved insight into the biology and ecology of the beetle, and have indicated new avenues for integrated and biological control. The latest developments in research, both laboratory and field, on the pest, its natural enemies and their implications for integrated control of H. hampei are summarized, with a particular focus on the situation in The Americas. Lately, the global coffee industry has changed radically; it has suffered a long cycle of lowest-ever world market prices caused by overproduction and technological change. At the same time, the advent of sustainable certification schemes has had a major impact on the industry. The role of integrated pest management and biological control of H. hampei in an era of changes in the coffee industry is discussed.

The potential of the eulophid parasitoid Phymastichus coffea LaSalle to control coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) populations under field conditions in Colombia was evaluated. Parasitoid adults were released one, five and nine days after artificial infestations of 90-, 150- and 210-day-old coffee berries with H. hampei females. The position of the beetle inside the berry and the parasitism levels were assessed ten days after each P. coffea release. Parasitism of H. hampei by P. coffea was significantly affected by the age of the berries at the time of infestation, and by the position of the beetle inside the berries. Highest levels of parasitism were recorded in 150-day-old berries (75–85%) and in 90-day-old berries (75%) when P. coffea were released one day after the artificial infestation with H. hampei. In 150-day-old berries, highest levels of parasitism were recorded for H. hampei found in the outer layer of the endosperm followed by beetles penetrating the exocarp. Increasing the time of P. coffea releases after the artificial infestations with H. hampei led to decreased levels of parasitism in beetles attacking 90- and 150-day-old coffee berries. Low levels of parasitism were recorded in H. hampei females infesting older coffee berries because most of the beetles had already constructed galleries deep in the endosperm of the berries, i.e. out of reach of the parasitoid. The potential of P. coffea for biological control of coffee berry borer in Colombia is discussed.

The composition and preparation of an artificial diet for the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei is described. Ten generations were obtained without any significant change in fecundity. Development at 25°C on this diet was similar to previously reported work using coffee berries. One female reared on this diet lived for 380 days. This diet will permit investigations into the genetics of insecticide resistance, potential biopesticides and other research, requiring a convenient laboratory rearing system.

The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, which originates from Africa, is one of the most serious pests of commercial coffee and is now present in most of the major coffee growing parts of the world. Quite recently, this beetle spread into Mexico and Ecuador and is now causing serious economic losses in these two countries. In 1985, a classical biological control programme was started to control the pest using the bethylid, Prorops nasuta and other hymenopterous natural enemies from Africa. During the programme, various studies were conducted in Kenya on P. nasuta and H. hampei including their field distribution and life history. A technique of rearing and screening P. nasuta against plant diseases was developed and several shipments have now been made to Ecuador and Mexico. In 1988 a continuous laboratory culture of P. nasuta had been established in Ecuador and the wasp was also reported to be reproducing in sleeves cages in the field.

Between 1979 and 1982, H. hampei spread itself from a small area in the lowlands of central Jamaica, to the entire coffee growing region (alt. 15–1603 m) of the island. The levels of infestations in the 390 farms surveyed ranged from less than 5–100%; in plains it was about 45% but only about 3.4% at altitudes of over 1000 m. On a parish basis the infestation ranged from 2.8 to 19.17% (mean 9.45%) in June 1982, before the spraying with thiodan EC35 began.

In November 1982, 8 weeks after the last spray of the three-spray cycle, the infestation levels ranged between 1 and 20.21% (mean 9.56%). In fact, it had increased from about 6.7% in 1979 to 9.56% in 1982, despite the multi-million dollar spraying programme over 4 years. The shortcomings of the chemical control strategy are discussed and an integrated approach involving chemical and cultural practices is advocated.

No insect parasite or predator of H. hampei were found in Jamaica; the fungus Beauvaria bassiana was however, found to have inflicted 6–40% mortality in the adult borer.

The persistence of 34 formulations in the green (G) and red (R) berries of C. arabica var. typica, infested with female adult H. hampei were assayed by a dip-technique. The 3-day LC50 values in G and R (figures in parentheses) berries for thiodan EC 35 were 0.00284 (0.00327), and the relative ratio of values for other formulations were: perfekthion 1.2 (2.1) > carbicron 1.6 (2.3) > basudin 3.5 (3.2) > actellic 4.0 (3.6) > decis 4.1 (3.7) > thiodan EC 3 4.2 (4.2) > bidrin 5.8 (5.0) > malathion 5.8 (5.1) > lindane 5.8 (5.6) > ciodrin 5.9 (5.6) > folimat 6.0 (6.0) > belmark 6.2 (6.3) > aldicarb 8.0 (9.7) > nexion 11.0 (12.0)>kelthane 13.5 (15.4) > tiovel 14.6 (16.3) > dursban 15.6 (22.0) > chlordane 17.8 (23.8) > methomyl 21.5 (24.3) > aldrin 25.1 (24.9) > supona 27.2 (26.5) > dimilin 29.0 (27.5) > methoxychlor 31.7 (92.2) > chlorfenvinphos 35.8 (92.5) > dieldrin 41.2 (93.8) > phosdrin 65.0 (94.7)>sevin 104.2 (118.0)> nexagan 106.4 (121.9) > bimarit 196.4 (301.7) > azodrin 271.2 (410.4) > fenitrothion 448.3 (417.0) > chlorpyrifos 448.8 (614.3) > gardona 514.6 (703.1), -fold more than the thiodan EC 35 values.

The 7-day LC50 values for 29 formulations were ca 10–82% less than those of the 3-day values; the decrease in the values for leading formulations being thiodan EC 35 13.4 (8.3), perfekthion 6.5 (39.9), carbicron 12.4 (10.6), thiodan EC 324.3 (16.4), malathion 35.2 (25.7), lindane 82.1 (76.9) and tiovel 59.6 (67). The values for the 17 least toxic formulations (except dimilin and bimarit) showed ca 27–88% decrease during the last 4 days of observations.

Twenty-three insecticide formulations were bioassayed for toxicity against the eggs and larvae of H. hampei in maturing and ripe berries of C. arabica L. Var. typica. The infested berries were dipped in different concentrations of individual formulations, dissected 24 hr later for recording larval mortality and transferring the eggs to wet filter papers where larval hatching was recorded for the next 4 days. The order of toxicity and LC50 (% a.i. × 103) values for the eggs in maturing and ripe (figures in parenthesis) berries were: thiodan EC 35, 5.1 (6.2) > perfekthion, 5.9 (8.1) > decis, 7.2 (9.4) > carbicron, 7.3 (9.8) > actellic, 10.6(12.9) > thiodan EC 3, 14.7 (17.4); > folimat > aldicarb > dursban > tiovel > supona > dimilin > methomyl > kelthane > phosdrin > sevin > methoxychlor > dieldrin > azordrin > fenitrothion > bimarit > chlorpyrifos > gardona, 39.7−1043.7 (44.3−2642.2). The order of toxicity remained almost the same for the larvae, the LC50 values being 2.1−12.7 (2.9−21.8) for the top six and 14.8−1920.4 (47.1−2738.6) for the remaining 17 formulations. Generally, the formulations were 1.1−2.7-fold more toxic to larvae than to eggs infesting the maturing berries but 0.47−3.57 more toxic to eggs than larvae in the ripe berries.

The LC50 values (% active ingredient in parentheses) for 34 formulations of 29 insecticides, obtained by dipping green berries (GWB) infested with adult Hypothenemus hampei, were: thiodan EC 35 (0.0003) > perfekthion (0.0004) > carbicron (0.00044) > decis (0.0005) > actellic (0.0008) > basudin (0.0009) > belmark and ciodrin (0.0012) > thiodan EC 3 (0.0013) > malathion (0.0014) > folimat and bidrin (0.002) > aldicarb and lindane (0.003) > nexion > tiovel EC 3 > dursban (0.0046–0.006) > supona > methomyl > kelthane (0.011–0.012) > chlordane > aldrin > dimilin > chlorfenvinphos > phosdrin > sevin > methoxychlor > dieldrin (0.016–0.025) > nexagan (0.034) > azodrin (0.04) > fenitrothion (0.07) > bimarit (0.14) > chlorpyrifos (0.39) > gardona (0.96).

The order of toxicity remained the same for borers in the pulp (GP) or endosperm (GE) of green berries or endosperm of red (RE) berries, though the LC50 of each formulation of the same or different insecticides varied significantly. The respective LC50 values for the four leading, and the rest of the formulations were about 7−21- and 2−6-fold higher in GWB than GP, 9−23 and 2−5-fold higher in GE than GP, 1−2.3- and 1−3-fold higher in RE than GE, and 12−25- and 3−37-fold higher in RE than GWB. The practical significance of the results is discussed.