The activity of Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński as the Primate of Poland occurred in a period when Poland did not maintain diplomatic relations with the Holy See. The period between 1948 and 1981 can be divided, from the perspective of the Warsaw authorities, into three subperiods: no relations and no talks (informal and official), 1948–1965; negotiations, 1965–1974; and working contacts, 1974–1981. The years 1964–1978 were also the period of the apogee of the Vatican's Ostpolitik carried out by Msgr Agostino Casaroli, under the auspices of Pope Paul VI. Cardinal Wyszyński was directly involved four times in talks on the arrangement of Polish–Vatican relations: in 1951, 1957, 1963, and 1965. With time, however, the primate gained more and more distance from the purposefulness of establishing relations between the Holy See and communist states. It should be added that from the beginning of the 1970s, the primate was quite critical of the effects of the Vatican's so-called Ostpolitik. At the end of the pontificate of Paul VI, an open conflict arose between the Secretariat of State and the Primate of Poland, which was resolved only with the election of Karol Wojtyła as Pope.

This paper examines the Holy See as a political actor amid hard power conflict. While many debate the legal and religious personalities of the Holy See, few engage with an approach that illustrates the Holy See and its citizen-like laity in light of its combinative religious–political dynamic. This paper argues that resulting from this dynamic, the Holy See's sui generis statehood enables the comprehension of a similar sui generis citizenry. These citizens, which this paper labels pseudo-citizens, are the result of connections between the recognized sovereignty of the Holy See and its role over the Roman Catholic Church. This paper examines this connection contextually amid the Holy See's interaction with the underlying international moral framework on just conflict and the protective motivating factors associated with its pseudo-citizens. This motivation is consistent with historical Holy See positions, and is significant for understanding the Holy See's approach amid future hard power events.

Holy See — Lateran Treaty of 1929 between Holy See and Italy — Immunity of Certain Church Property in Italy — Status of Basilica of St. Paul — Whether under Sovereignty of Holy See or Italy.

Jurisdiction — Exemptions from — Foreign States — The Holy See — Acta Jure Imperii and Acta Jure Gestionis — The Law of Italy.

International Law — Relation to Municipal Law — Concordat between Holy See and Germany — Alleged Violation of Provisions of Concordat by One of German Länder — Whether German Federal Republic Can Compel Compliance with Concordat by Land — The Constitutional Law of Germany.

Composite States — Federal States — Concordat between Holy See and Germany — Alleged Violation of Provisions of Concordat by One of German Länder — Whether German Federal Republic Can Compel Land to Comply with Terms of Concordat — The Constitutional Law of Germany.

Holy See — Concordat with Germany — Alleged Violation of Provisions of Concordat by One of German Lander — Whether German Federal Republic Can Compel Land to Comply with Terms of Concordat — The Constitutional Law of Germany.

Treaties — Operation of — Treaty Concluded by Federal State — Concordat between Holy See and Germany — Alleged Violation of Provisions of Concordat by One of German Länder — Whether German Federal Republic Can Compel Land to Comply with Terms of Concordat — The Constitutional Law of Germany.

Holy See — Status of — Action by Employees of Hospital Owned by Holy See and Situate Outside Vatican — Claim by Hospital Administration to Immunity from Jurisdiction of Italian Courts — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — The Law of Italy.

Jurisdiction — Exemptions from — Foreign States — The Holy See — Action by Employees of Hospital Owned by Holy See and Situate Outside Vatican — Claim by Hospital Administration to Immunity from Jurisdiction of Italian Courts — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — The Law of Italy.

Holy See — Position of — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — Interpretation of — Italian Jurisdiction in Respect of Crimes Committed in the Vatican City — The Law of Italy.

Holy See — Position of — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — Interpretation of — Italian Jurisdiction in Respect of Crimes Committed in the Vatican City.

Treaties — Special Kinds of — Concordats.

Treaties — Operation of — Concordats.

Holy See — Concordat between Holy See and Germany — Provisions of Concordat as Part of German Municipal Law — Right of Priest to Refuse Testimony — Equality of Rights as between Catholic and Protestant Clergy.

Holy See — Legal Status of Prior to Lateran Treaties — Corporations Created by the Holy See

Holy See — Vatican City — Duty to Maintain St. Peter’s Square — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — Interpretation of.

Holy See — Diplomatic Representatives Accredited to — Lateran Treaty.

Diplomatic Immunity — In General — Waiver of — Report to Police — Whether Amounting to Waiver of Immunity.

Diplomatic Immunity — Domestic Servants of Diplomats — Crimes Committed by — Whether Covered by Diplomatic Immunity — Diplomatic Representatives Accredited to the Holy See — Immunities in Italy — Lateran Treaty — Report to Police — Whether Constituting Waiver of Immunity.

Jurisdiction — Crimes Committed Abroad — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — Jurisdiction of Italian Courts.

Holy See — Position of — Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929 — Interpretation of — Italian Jurisdiction in Respect of Crimes Committed Abroad.

Holy See — Vatican City — Lateran Treaty — The Palace of the Holy Office — Jurisdictional Immunity of.

Diplomatic Immunities — Embassy Buildings — Extraterritoriality — Fiction of — Vatican City — Lateran Treaty — The Palace of the Holy Office.

Jurisdiction — Exemption from — Lateran Treaty — Holy See — Department of Works of the Archbasilica of the Lateran.

Diplomatic Immunities — Legation Buildings — Extraterritoriality of — Meaning of — Basilica of St. John in the Lateran.

Holy See — Legal Position of — Basilica of St. John in the Lateran — Extraterritoriality of — Meaning of — Exemption from Jurisdiction — Contracts of a Private Law Nature — The Lateran Treaty.

Holy See — Vatican City — Lateran Treaty — Archbasilica of St. John — Extraterritoriality of.

Diplomatic Immunities — Embassy Buildings — Conception of Extraterritoriality — Meaning of — The Vatican City — Lateran Treaty — Archbasilica of St. John in the Lateran.