This chapter introduces chief postulates common to usage-based (UB) approaches to language. The UB approach maintains that speakers’ experiences with language shape how language is stored. Experiences with specific words and word combinations in particular linguistic, discursive, and social contexts accrue in memory and subsequently contribute to patterns of variability evident in speech productions. Usage-based approaches regularly consider independent effects on lexical representations of decontextualized prior probabilities (e.g. phone/word/bigram frequencies, type frequencies), and, increasingly, contextually informed counts (e.g. lexical items’ cumulative exposure to conditioning effects of the production contexts, phone/word probabilities) are considered. This chapter offers an overview of studies exploring the connection between usage patterns and bilingual sound systems as well as studies exploring evidence of interlingual influence arising from bilingual lexical storage (schematic ties in memory). The chapter suggests potential avenues for future UB research into bilingual phonetics and phonology.

How do children process language as they get older? Is there continuity in the functions assigned to specific structures? And what changes in their processing and their representations as they acquire more language? They appear to use bracketing (finding boundaries), reference (linking to meanings), and clustering (grouping units that belong together) as they analyze the speech stream and extract recurring units, word classes, and larger constructions. Comprehension precedes production. This allows children to monitor and repair production that doesn’t match the adult forms they have represented in memory. Children also track the frequency of types and tokens; they use types in setting up paradigms and identifying regular versus irregular forms. Amount of experience with language, (the diversity of settings) plus feedback and practice, also accounts for individual differences in the paths followed during acquisition. Ultimately, models of the process of acquisition need to incorporate all this to account for how acquisition takes place.

This chapter introduces different types of signals, and studies the properties of many kinds of systems that are encountered in signal processing. Signals discussed include the exponential signal, the unit step, single-frequency signals, rectangular pulses, Dirac delta signals, and periodic signals. Two-dimensional signals, especially 2D frequencies and sinusoids, are also demonstrated. Many types of systems are discussed, such as homogeneous systems, additive systems, linear systems, stable systems, time-invariant systems, and causal systems. Both continuous and discrete-time cases are discussed. Examples are presented throughout, such as music signals, ECG signals, and so on, to demonstrate the concepts. Subtle differences between discrete-time and continuous-time signals and systems are also pointed out.

Many renewable energy sources produce electricity, and the fundamental operation of a national alternating current electric power system is described. The difference between real and reactive power is explained. The impact of renewable energy sources on the voltage of the power system is demonstrated through an example and approaches to controlling network voltages are discussed. The control of frequency is described and the importance of maintaining sufficient inertia is highlighted. Scheduling generation in a power system with significant fraction of renewable energy generation is explained. Approaches to demand-side participation and the importance of this concept are discussed. The connection of onshore and offshore wind farms to the power system is discussed. Approaches to the design of PV farms are illustrated. The chapter is supported by 6 examples, 10 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

When evaluating a patient on continuous EEG monitoring at the bedside, the two fundamental questions a reader must ask themselves are: a) is the patient encephalopathic? and b) if so, is this due to epileptiform activity or seizures? This chapter describes a simple method of rapid bedside EEG interpretation using three easy steps. The first step is to analyze the background for continuity, symmetry, voltage, and the presence of a posterior dominant rhythm. The second step involves searching for abnormal waveforms, such as slow or sharp waves, and the third step involves recognizing artifacts. Sharp waves are associated with seizure activity. Finally, the chapter also describes the significance and method for testing reactivity and grading the severity of encephalopathy.

We begin our study of rotational motion with the definitions and detailed examination of the fundamental quantities which we will use throughout this book. We then proceed with a description of kinematics in rotational motion by drawing analogies from our knowledge of one-dimensional kinematics in linear motion.

The scope of the investigation is clarified: ‘ancient Greek’ refers to extant texts in the Greek language written before AD 600, ‘Latin’ excludes other languages of ancient Italy, and ‘loanword’ includes derivatives of borrowings but excludes codeswitches and semantic extensions. The criteria for distinguishing loanwords from codeswitches are investigated, with a focus on frequency, integration, and not being marked by Greek speakers as foreign.

The fact that not all cannabis users will develop psychosis suggests that cannabis may exert its causal role only in pre-disposed individuals. However, since the number of people who use cannabis worldwide is so high, those who will eventually develop psychosis, whilst still a minority, represent a large number. The evidence indicates that different patterns of cannabis use have a different impact on the risk of developing psychosis, with young age at first use, and a higher frequency of use of high-potency types of cannabis indicated as the most important risk factors. Nonetheless, given the complex nature of the association between cannabis use and psychosis, it is hard to determine which cannabis users will eventually develop psychosis. The link between cannabis use and schizophrenia is unlikely to be just the result of a genetic predisposition, it is more likely the result of Gene x Environment inter-play.

This chapter explores and develops the concept of typicality and atypicality both generally and specifically in terms of reference. Existing literature on reference established our core understanding of referring, forming the basis for how we view reference. However, evidence has largely been experimental, computational, philosophical, and/or based on small excerpts. This chapter then sets out the distinction we would like to make on the division between typical and atypical uses. We argue for a view of typicality as conventionalised language use, which can be said to fall within the norms of a given register. Atypicality, conversely includes instances of language which can be said to be infrequent and unconventionalised for a given register. The chapter focusses on existing models of reference which provide an excellent grounding in typical uses of reference through which we can explore the (in)stability of identifiability and view atypical reference as an exploitation of conventionalised norms.

Frequency, as events per second measured in hertz (Hz), is introduced as one type of rate that is important for music. Tones associated with music are typically found to correspond to a few hundred events per second. Other rates are considered as examples. Two types of rates are distinguished: additive and multiplicative. For an additive rate, a quantity is added for each interval. A multiplicative rate involves a multiplicative change, such as a percentage change, for each interval. Multiplicative rates lead to exponentially increasing and decreasing behavior. Exponential behavior is often described using logarithms. It is found that the frequency of tones is an additive rate, but the change in the frequency going up and down the keyboard is multiplicative. In particular, octaves are a factor of 2 in frequency.

One-dimensional traveling wave pulses are defined and generalized to sinusoidal traveling waves. The mathematical description of sinusoidal waves is considered in depth. It is shown that any traveling wave can be considered the sum of standing waves, and vice versa. Longitudinal polarization is introduced and contrasted with the previous examples involving transverse polarization. The effects of dispersion, where the wave speed may depend on frequency, on wave propagation are briefly discussed.

This chapter discusses the diachronic sources and the synchronic properties of the resultative construction from various angles, including a brief cross-linguistic comparison of similar phenomena; an investigation of the semantic, syntactic, and phonological properties of the resultative construction; and a consideration of its obligatory application in certain syntactic constructions.

This unit develops students’ knowledge of the present tense in conjunction with reflexive pronouns and verbs to talk about people’s daily routines. It also introduces them to telling the time in Spanish, the days of the week and relevant time phrases and adverbs to indicate frequency of activities. In this context, the verb soler, to express habitual actions, is useful.

This unit develops students’ knowledge of the present tense in conjunction with reflexive pronouns and verbs to talk about people’s daily routines. It also introduces them to telling the time in Spanish, the days of the week and relevant time phrases and adverbs to indicate frequency of activities. In this context, the verb soler, to express habitual actions, is useful.