Drawing from research in educational psychology and in applied linguistics, this chapter profiles adolescents’ social maturation and their developmental needs. It explores how this time of transition towards greater independence has implications for teaching and learning. It focuses on the key characteristics of a supportive learning environment, and illustrates these through examples from classrooms and the voices of teachers and students. It discusses the impact of teacher expectations and it describes the complementary roles that teachers and peers play. It highlights the importance of positive classroom relationships. It discusses how teachers need to provide adolescent language learners with activities that match their interests and encourage them to engage in the learning process. The chapter concludes by describing the successful classroom as one that provides a balance of challenge and support.

Discussions of age differences in attention often start with the heuristic that older adults show reductions in top-down, goal-driven controlled attention compared to young adults, but relatively preserved bottom-up, stimulus-driven, and more automatic attentional functions. However, age differences in sensorimotor function can reduce the bottom-up salience of environmental stimuli. This can in turn lead to seemingly paradoxical findings of larger age-related deficits in very simple tasks that rely almost entirely on bottom-up attention than those that make moderate, but still-achievable, demands on top-down attention, and thus present opportunities for compensation. We suggest that just as attention represents the interplay of sensory and cognitive function, some of the most interesting and important age differences in attention occur at the interplay of top-down and bottom-up processes. New directions for the field include an increasing emphasis on the additional interplay between cognitive and motivational processes, and their physiological basis.