In this paper, a complete introduction to the dead reckoning navigation technique is offered after a discussion of the many forms of navigation, and the benefits and drawbacks associated with each of those types of navigation. After that, the dead reckoning navigation solution is used as an option that is both low-cost and makes use of the sophisticated equations that are used by the system. Moreover, to achieve the highest level of accuracy in navigation, an investigation of navigation errors caused by dead reckoning is calculated. Employing the suggested dead reckoning navigation system, the final position of an underwater vehicle can be established with a high degree of accuracy by using experimental data (from sensors) and the uncertainties that are associated with the system. Finally, to illustrate the correctness of the dead reckoning navigation process, the system error analysis as uncertainty that was carried out using experimental data using the dead reckoning navigation technique is compared with GPS data.

An approximation procedure is described, which greatly simplifies dead reckoning on a tortuous path. The journey is divided into N segments of equal length, L. The overall direction is approximately the average direction of the segments. The net distance is approximately NL[1-var(α)/2], where var(α) is the variance (in radians squared) of bearings, αi, corresponding to the segments, and must be less than 0·7. Propagation of random errors is discussed. In a case study in sub-tropical rainforest the technique gives an estimated position whose associated circle of 68% confidence has a radius of about 10% of the net distance.

In this paper, a novel method of sensor based pedestrian dead reckoning is presented using sensors mounted on a shoe. Sensor based systems are a practical alternative to global navigation satellite systems when positioning accuracy is degraded such as in thick forest, urban areas with tall buildings and indoors. Using miniature, inexpensive sensors it is possible to create self-contained systems using sensor-only navigation techniques optimised for pedestrian motion. The systems developed extend existing foot based stride measurement technology by adding the capability to sense direction, making it possible to determine the path and displacement of the user. The proposed dead-reckoning navigation system applies an array of accelerometers and magneto-resistive sensors worn on the subject's shoe. Measurement of the foot's acceleration allows the precise identification of separate stride segments, thus providing improved stride length estimation. The system relies on identifying the stance phase to resolve the sensor attitude and determine the step heading. Field trials were carried out in forested conditions. Performance metrics include position, stride length estimation and heading with respect to a high accuracy reference trajectory.

The ability of animals to find their way, without the benefit of mechanical or electronic aids to navigation, has fascinated humans for centuries. Relying on innate knowledge, coupled with the extraction of navigational data from the natural features of the universe, animals continually confound humans with their skills in locomotion. The magnetic compass, sun compass, strip maps, snapshots, target maps, temperature charts and star charts are known to feature in the overall animal navigation kit. Each species selects the most appropriate ‘map/chart’ and navigation kit for its environment.

The increasing availability of small, low-cost GPS receivers has established a firm growth in the production of Location-Based Services (LBS). LBS, such as in-car navigation systems, are not necessarily reliant on high accuracy but a continuous positioning service. When available, the accuracy provided by the standard positioning service (SPS) of 30 metres, 95% of the time is often acceptable. The reality is, however, that GPS does not work in all situations, and it is therefore common to integrate GPS with additional sensors. The use of low-cost inertial sensors alone during GPS signal outage is severely restricted due to the accumulation of errors that is inherent with such dead reckoning (DR) systems. Through the integration of spatial information with real-time positioning sensors, intelligence can be added to the land mobile navigation solution. The information contained within a Geographical Information System (GIS) provides additional observations that can be used to improve the navigation result. With this approach, the solution is not dependent on the performance capabilities of the navigation sensors alone. This enables the use of lower accuracy navigation devices, allowing low-cost systems to provide a sustained, viable navigation solution despite long-term GPS outages. Practical results are presented comparing solutions obtained from a hand-held GPS receiver to a gyroscope and odometer.

Dead reckoning (also called path integration) is the process by which a navigating organism derives its current position relative to an Earthbound reference point from its own locomotion. Dead reckoning requires the continuous estimation of changes in direction and location through self-generated signals and the computation of position on the basis of these signals.

(i) Hymenopterous insects measure rotations and translations mainly with the help of optical references such as the Sun and translational visual flow. By contrast, mammals are able to estimate their position on the basis of purely ‘internal’ information; that is, signals generated in the vestibular system by inertial forces, somatosensory feedback, and efference copies (copies of central commands that control the performance of rotations and translations). Obviously, the assessment of the angular and linear components of locomotion is much more precise if it is assisted by external references than if this is not the case.

(ii) Only man-made dead reckoning systems yield precise position information through the twofold integration over time of inertial signals deriving from angular and linear acceleration. On the biological level, all species tested so far seem to rely on a simplified form of path ‘integration’: in certain test situations, arthropods and mammals (including humans) commit similar systematic errors. This suggests that species from unrelated taxa update position according to a similar algorithm.