Georgia growers can benefit from double-cropping grain sorghum following watermelon to maximize land use and add economic value to their operations. However, capitalizing on the economic advantages of harvesting two crops within a single season must account for potential herbicide injury to rotational crops. An integrated weed management strategy that includes a preplant application of fomesafen and terbacil is recommended for weed control in watermelon production systems. However, currently labeled plant-back restrictions for grain sorghum require a minimum of 10 and 24 mo for fomesafen and terbacil, respectively. Therefore this research aimed to determine the tolerance of grain sorghum to fomesafen and terbacil following soil applications applied 90 to 100 d before planting (DBP). Experiments were conducted at the University of Georgia Ponder Research Farm from 2019 to 2023. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates. Five rates of fomesafen (35, 70, 140, 210, and 280 g ai ha−1), four rates of terbacil (3.5, 7.0, 10.5, and 14.0 g ai ha−1), and a nontreated control were evaluated. In 2019, fomesafen caused significant sorghum leaf necrosis, plant density reductions, height reductions, and yield reductions of at least 16%, especially when applied at rates ≥ 210 g ai ha−1. Terbacil had little to no effect on sorghum injury, density, height, or yield in any year. These results suggest that sorghum has sufficient tolerance to terbacil when applied 90 to 100 DBP. In four of five years, sorghum had an acceptable tolerance to fomesafen when applied 90 to 100 DBP. However, yield losses observed in 2019 suggest that caution should be taken when fomesafen is applied 90 to 100 DBP grain sorghum at ≥ 210 g ai ha−1.

Environmental plastic pollution comprises partially degraded particles representing a continuum of sizes, shapes, polymer types and chemical compositions. Owing to their potential for biological uptake, small microplastic particles (sMP; <100 μm) and nanoplastics (NPs) are considered to be a potential risk to organisms. Understanding how sMPs and NPs behave in the environment, and how environmental matrices affect their detection, is fundamental to quantifying exposures, assessing hazards and understanding these risks. For this purpose, high-quality, well-characterised and environmentally relevant test and reference materials are crucial. The current lack of environmentally relevant sMP and NP reference materials has resulted in many studies applying commercially available spherical, homogenous and monodisperse particles, typically produced for specific purposes and without environmental relevance. There is a need for sMP and NP test/reference materials for fate and effects assessments and analytical protocol validation that more accurately represent the sMP and NP present in the environment. To date, feasible methods for producing relevant sMP and NP test materials in sufficient quantities for environmental fate and effects studies remain lacking. The current review provides an overview and comparison of the available methods, highlighting those that show the most promise for producing environmentally relevant sMP and NP with further development and optimisation.

Interaction between n-butylammonium (BA) chloride and vermiculite from Santa Olalla (Spain) has been studied in large flake (5 × 5 × 0.1 mm) or ground powder (≤80 µm) samples. The differences in adsorption and decomposition of BA ions in both particle sizes have been established. In the interlamellar space, the BA ion remains unaltered in powder samples, but is degraded in flakes. The experimental results suggest decomposition of the BA in the interlamellar space of vermiculite flakes by breaking of the C-N bond. The degradation of BA takes place over a short period. The variety with BA in the interlamellar space is transformed into a new one, due to the degradation of alkylammonium. The transformation occurs through an interstratified phase formed between BA-vermiculite and NH4-vermiculite, and finally a phase appears in which only ammonium is present in the interlamellar space. Due to the many industrial applications of alkylammonium-clays, determination of the stability of alkylammonium in the interlamellar space of clay minerals is of great importance.

The adsorption and degradation of the herbicide triasulfuron [2-(2-chloroethoxy)-N-[[(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)amino]carbonyl]benzenesulfonamide] (CMMT) on homoionic Fe3+-, Al3+-, Ca2+-, or Na+-exchanged montmorillonite in aqueous medium were studied. Ca- and Na-exchanged montmorillonite were ineffective in the adsorption and degradation of triasulfuron. The adsorption on Fe-and Al-exchanged montmorillonite was rapid, and equilibrium was attained after 5 min. Degradation of the herbicide was slow and the type of the degradation products depended on the nature of the exchangeable cations. In the presence of Fe3+-rich montmorillonite, the metabolites 2-(2-chloro-ethoxy)benzenesulfonamide (CBSA), 2-(2-chloroethoxy)-N-[[(4-hydroxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)amino]carbonyl]benzenesulfonamide (CHMT), and l-[2-(2-chloroethoxy)benzene-l-sulfonyl]-7-acetyl-triuret (CBAT) were the only identified products, whereas 2-amino-4-methoxy-6-methyltriazine (AMMT), CBSA, CHMT, and CBAT were the primary metabolites for the Al3+-rich montmorillonite. A Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) study of montmorillonite samples after the interaction with triasulfuron in organic solution suggests that the hydrolysis mechanism involves the adsorption of the herbicide on the 2:1 layers.

Sorption of the herbicide isoxaflutole and its main degradate, diketonitrile (DKN), to natural clays, SAz-1, SWy-2 and SHCa-1, and the organoclay derivatives (octadecylammonium (ODA) and hexadecyltrimethylammonium (HDTMA)) of these clays was investigated. Isoxaflutole hydrolysis to DKN was too rapid in aqueous solutions with organoclays to characterize sorption. No measurable DKN sorption was observed for the natural clays. Sorption of DKN was greater on organoclays with an interlayer paraffin-like complex that were prepared from the high-charge SAz-1 clay than on organoclays with a bilayer or monolayer interlayer complex prepared using lower-charge SWy-2 or SHCa-1 clays. Desorption isotherms indicated that sorption was irreversible. For SAz-1 with HDTMA at ∼100% of the clay CEC, the d001 values suggest that DKN enters the interlamellar space of the organoclay and dissociates into the anion. The DKN anion forms a very stable chelate complex with the residual cations and/or partially-coordinated structural cations. This strong interaction supports the irreversibility of the sorptive process.

Synthetic dyes in industrial effluents pose a significant risk to human health and the environment, so much effort has been expended to degrade them using various methods, including the use of clay minerals as catalysts. The purpose of this study was to advance understanding of the mechanisms for clay-catalyzed degradation of crystal violet (CV) and other triarylmethine dyes using three different vermiculite clays (Llano, Texas, VTx-1; Ojen, OV; and Russian, RV), a montmorillonite (SWy-1), and a Spanish sepiolite (SEP). While OV, RV, SWy-1, and SEP showed almost no activity with respect to dye degradation, VTx-1 caused complete removal of the dye from solution up to the equivalent of 200% of the cation exchange capacity of the clay. While large amounts of dye were removed from the solution, no change in basal spacing was observed by X-ray diffraction. The kinetics of removal of CV from solution began after a lag period of >10 days in a process that can be described by pseudo-second order kinetics. By comparison, adsorption of CV onto SWy-1 and SEP was immediate, without any lag period. Sonication treatment of the VTx-1 vermiculite suspension caused the CV removal process to begin immediately. Fourier-transform infrared measurements of adsorption of CV on clays revealed that for the OV and RV vermiculites, SEP sepiolite, and SWy-1 montmorillonite the spectra were similar to the original dye; the spectra of the VTx-1-dye differed considerably, however, exhibiting vibrations of methylene groups (—CH2—) which were not present in the CV molecule. The significant changes in the IR spectrum indicated that CV underwent degradation on the surface of the VTx-1 vermiculite. Carbon-content analysis led to the conclusion that degradation products remained bound to the clay. Similar effects were observed for two other triarylmethine dyes (malachite green and methyl green) added to VTx-1, indicated that it may, therefore, be considered suitable as a sorbent to remove and decompose such dyes from industrial effluents. Pretreatment by sonication would remove the need for long incubation times.

Thermally induced lamellar structure changes due to phase transition and degradation in organoclays based on a synthetic ‘Somasif’ mineral and two organic surfactants, di-methyl dihydro-ditallow ammonia chloride (DMDTA) and tri-butyl-hexadecyl phosphonium bromide (HTBP) were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, in situ simultaneous small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) over the temperature range 30–280°C. Results indicated that the surfactant layer in ‘Somasif’-based organoclays underwent thermally induced melting-like order-disorder transition followed by desorption of surfactant molecules, resulting in drastic changes in the character of the layer periodicity. The transition temperature (Ttr), determined from the endothermic transition in DSC, was found to depend strongly on the type and the content of surfactant incorporated. Temperature-resolved SAXS indicated complex intercalated layered structures, containing multiple lamellar stack populations of two different organic layer thicknesses. A weak scattering peak (s0), located at exactly the half angular position of the strong first scattering maximum s1 (s0 = 0.5s1), was found in all tested ‘Somasif’ clays. The presence of this peak can be attributed to a slight breaking of the translational symmetry in the layered structure, causing the 1D repeat period in real space to be doubled. In other words, some portions of layers are grouped into pairs and a single pair forms the new repeat unit. This arrangement is reminiscent of the Peierls-like distortion.

Tropical forest hotspots have a high diversity of species but have lost > 70% of their original vegetation cover and are characterized by a multitude of small and isolated fragments. Paradoxically, conservation actions in these areas are still mainly focused on protection of large tracts of forests, a strategy now infeasible because of the small area of forest remnants. Here we use the Vulnerable black-handed titi monkey Callicebus melanochir as a model to study the effects of habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation on arboreal mammals and to provide insights for science-driven conservation in fragmented landscapes in tropical forest hotspots. We surveyed 38 Atlantic Forest fragments in Bahia State, Brazil and assessed the effects of patch area, quality and visibility, and landscape connectivity on the occurrence of our model species. Patch area was the single best model explaining species occurrence. Nonetheless, patch quality and visibility, and landscape connectivity, positively affect occurrence. In addition to patch area, patch quality, patch visibility and landscape connectivity are useful for predicting the occurrence of arboreal mammals in the fragments of tropical forest hotspots. We encourage the assessment of habitat quality (based on remotely sensed vegetation indices) and habitat visibility (based on digital elevation models) to improve discoverability of arboreal mammal populations and selection of fragments for conservation purposes across fragmented landscapes of tropical forest hotspots. Large remnants of tropical forest hotspots are scarce and therefore we require baseline data to support conservation actions and management in small forest fragments.

In this paper, we report the study of degradation for a kind of ideal mandrel material called poly-α-methylstyrene based on theoretical and experimental methods. First-principles calculations reveal two types of process: depolymerization and hydrogen-transfer-induced chain scission. The energy barrier for the former (0.68–0.82 eV) is smaller than that for most of the latter (1.39–4.23 eV). More importantly, reaction rates suggest that the former is fast whereas the latter is mostly slow, which can result in a difference of 5–31 orders of magnitude at 550 K. Furthermore, a thermogravimetric experiment shows that the activation energy of 2.53 eV for degradation is between those of fast and slow processes, corresponding to the theoretical average value of multiple reaction paths. Thus, a mandrel degradation model combining fast and slow processes is established at the atomic level. Our work provides a direction for research into the key technology of target fabrication in inertial confinement fusion.

Since the photocatalytic effect of a single conventional photocatalyst is often not ideal, it is particularly important to design and construct an efficient and stable photocatalyst in a compound way. In this study, we exploited the sol–gel method to combine BiOCl and TiO2 and gave full play to their respective advantages to prepare BiOCl/TiO2 composite materials. Then, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission electron microscope (TEM) characterization techniques were utilized to study important indicators of composites—composition, morphology, and structure. In the photodegradation experiment of methyl orange (MO), it was found that the photocatalytic performance of 10BTO (the molar ratio of TiO2 to BiOCl is 10:1) was the best among all the composite photocatalysts, and almost complete degradation of MO was realized. Besides, repeated experiments and recyclability tests on composite materials display favorable stability. Through ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV–Vis DRS), photoluminescence (PL), transient photocurrent response, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and electron spin resonance (ESR), a possible degradation mechanism is proposed. Given that there are serious environmental pollution problems in our country, we sincerely hope this research will do its best to degrade organic pollutants in wastewater.

In Mars-analogous hyperarid soils of the Atacama Desert, phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) as the main component of biomembrane play a role in reliably determining viable microbes. PLFA analyses illustrated a rise of the microbial abundance (from 5.0 × 106 to 4.2 × 107 cells g−1) and biodiversity (from 7 to 15 different individual PLFAs) from the north hyperarid core of the Atacama Desert to the southern arid region. Abundant cyclopropyl PLFAs (47.2 ± 4.6%) suggested the resistance to oligotrophic and hypersaline environments by Atacama microbial communities. The southernmost arid site had the highest proportion (8.7%) of eukaryotic and fungal lipid biomarkers. Different precipitations (ranging from 0.7 to 2 mm year−1) in the hyperarid core exerted different effects on microbial biomass, PLFA diversity, bacteria and microeukaryotes. By principal component analysis (cumulative 74.6% of variance), the dominance of PLFA hydroxylation was associated with the microbial viability; bacteria rich in C16:0, C18:0 and C16:1ω9 favoured higher soil conductivity and nitrate; and other PLFAs contributed more to the organic content. Additionally by comparing the ratios of PLFAs to well-preserved organics (e.g., mineral-bound organic carbon and microbial phosphorus), I found that the degradation of PLFAs decreased to a minimum when the mean annual precipitation is lower than 2 mm. These findings may further specify identifiable biomarkers on Mars, if potentially extant Martian microbes possess comparable phospholipid membrane structure.

Polyglycolide (PGA) materials have been widely used in the medical field, but the degradation mechanism in the natural environment is still unclear. High-viscosity PGA was prepared by using twin-screw reaction extrusion polymerization. The mass and intrinsic viscosity of PGA samples, the pH of the solution surrounding the PGA samples in water, and the number of degradation products resulting from the degradation of the PGA samples were studied under different conditions and at different temperatures. PGA does not degrade at 70 °C in either dry air or in a vacuum. Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential spectroscopy revealed that the PGA samples in water at 70 °C for 40 days had a substantially reduced mass and substantially altered thermal behavior when compared with the control sample (undegraded PGA sample). The degradation of the PGA samples in humid conditions at 70 °C was similar to the degradation of the samples in water at 70 °C. The results of this study indicate that water and water vapor (moisture) in the natural environment are the main causes of PGA degradation, and higher temperatures accelerate the degradation process, which shortens the shelf life and life of PGA.

Glyphosate is the most used herbicide worldwide, which has contributed to concerns about its environmental impact. Compared with most other herbicides, glyphosate has a half-life in soil and water that is relatively short (averaging about 30 d in temperate climates), mostly due to microbial degradation. Its primary microbial product, aminomethylphosphonic acid, is slightly more persistent than glyphosate. In soil, glyphosate is virtually biologically inactive due to its strong binding to soil components. Glyphosate does not bioaccumulate in organisms, largely due to its high water solubility. Glyphosate-resistant crops have greatly facilitated reduced-tillage agriculture, thereby reducing soil loss, soil compaction, carbon dioxide emissions, and fossil fuel use. Agricultural economists have projected that loss of glyphosate would result in increased cropping area, some gained by deforestation, and an increase in environmental impact quotient of weed management. Some drift doses of glyphosate to non-target plants can cause increased plant growth (hormesis) and/or increased susceptibility to plant pathogens, although these non-target effects are not well documented. The preponderance of evidence confirms that glyphosate does not harm plants by interfering with mineral nutrition and that it has no agriculturally significant effects on soil microbiota. Glyphosate has a lower environmental impact quotient than most synthetic herbicide alternatives.

The kinetic parameters of the thermal degradation of sepiolite were evaluated with a new method based on thermal analysis data. Thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis curves were recorded for the natural and preheated sepiolite samples in the temperature range 25–800°C for 4 h. The temperature-dependent height of the exothermic heat flow peak for the thermal decomposition of sepiolite located at ~850°C on the differential thermal analysis curve was taken as a kinetic variable for the thermal degradation. A thermal change coefficient was defined depending on this variable because this coefficient fit to the Arrhenius equation was assumed as a rate constant for the thermal degradation. The Arrhenius plot showed that the degradation occurs in three steps. Two of these are due to stepwise dehydration and the third originated from dehydroxylation of sepiolite. Three activation energies were obtained that increase with the increasing temperature interval of the steps.

This work demonstrates a double-step method, a simple chemical bath deposition and an in situ polymerization process, to synthesize the stable structure of a composite of Polyaniline/BiVO4/cellulose aerogel (PBC) in wastewater treatment. The poor stability of the carrier catalyst was improved significantly by forming a dense film of polyaniline (PANI) through polymerization on BiVO4/cellulose aerogel (BC). The developed three-dimensional porous structure enhanced photocatalytic stability. For instance, photocatalytic degradation of a dye, methylene blue, reached to 91.67% under the eight times successive irradiation of the visible light. The resulted fine performance could be owed to the strong adsorption of cellulose aerogel, uniform spreading of BiVO4, and the speedy electron separation efficiency of PBC. Moreover, the photocatalytic mechanisms including the role of the free radicals (•OH and •O2−) of the developed PBC were also discussed. The novel structure may present a new insight into the development of the carrier catalyst.