The population balance is introduced as an approach for modelling problems involving a population of particles with a distribution of one or more properties. Numerous applications are identified. The general methodology of applying the population balance in four basic steps is introduced. Basic concepts such as distributions, choice of distributed variables, kinetic and transport processes and the coupling of the population balance with fluid dynamics, are also introduced.

Chapter 9 involves shock–boundary-layer interactions that are intrinsic to supersonic engine intakes, transonic gas turbine blade tip gaps and blade passages, scramjet isolator ducts, transonic and supersonic flight vehicle surfaces, and surfaces of rockets, missiles, and reentry vehicles. It is of particular interest because it can result in large temporal and spatial pressure variations, and greatly affect boundary development including causing flow separation that feeds into the flow unsteadiness, and subsequently has a large impact on aerodynamic performance. The outcome of shock–boundary-layer interactions strongly depends on steady and unsteady initial conditions that can be factored into flow control approaches. Methods for these are presented.

Chapter 5 focuses on free shear layers and jets that involve the merging of two flow streams. Away from a boundary, the mean flow that results is inviscidly unstable and rapidly leads to the formation of coherent vortical structures that drive strong fluid mixing. In jets, it can result in large acoustic levels. Free shear layers are also highly sensitive to sound excitation that can lead to resonant growth of the instability, or a means of control. With this understanding, both passive and active methods of free shear layer control are presented.

Chapter 3 focuses on the control of bluff-body wakes, where a bluff body is generally categorized as one whose length in the flow direction is approximately the same as its height. Such shapes exhibit a wide wake on the scale of the body height, with aerodynamic drag that is dominated by a low-pressure region that forms in the near wake of the body. Bluff body wakes are complex and highly unsteady, involving boundary layer flow separation and multiple shear layer interactions. The control of bluff body aerodynamics has practical implications to airfoils at high angles of attack, aircraft landing gear, ground vehicles, and buildings and structures. Methods of control that key on the wake instabilities are presented.

Chapter 4 focuses on separated flows that occur in a variety of applications involving external flows, particularly related to aircraft, and internal flows, such as within turbomachines. Flow separation results when the flow does not have sufficient momentum to overcome an adverse pressure gradient, or when viscous dissipation occurs along the flow path. It is almost always associated with some form of aerodynamic penalty, including a loss of lift, an increase in drag, a loss of pressure recovery, and an increase in entropy. This chapter presents both passive and active methods to control these adverse effects.

Chapter 10 considers a broad approach in which the application geometry that dictates the flow field is designed from the beginning, to enhance flow control. Examples include airfoil lift control without moving surfaces. This chapter presents a number of approaches. These range from a simple modification of a geometry to rigorous approaches that utilize an adjoint formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations that identifies sensitivity to changes in geometry and seeks those that maximize flow control authority.

Chapter 8 focuses on turbulent boundary layers. This considers a proposed autonomous cycle for turbulence production that results from an instability of a distorted mean flow near the wall surface that is produced by a spanwise array of coherent longitudinal vortices whose spacing scales with the viscous shear stress. The instability results in a lift-up and break-up of the longitudinal vortices that are linked to increased turbulence production and increased viscous drag. This and other mechanisms of turbulence production and viscous drag generation are presented. Methods of flow control that key on these specific mechanisms are presented along with significant results.

Chapter 19 explores how different technological resources may help or hinder language learning efforts. Technology is discussed in its capacity to support learners, to create new real-life communicative tasks, and to assist teachers as an additional resource. The chapter includes several ways in which technology can be used to maximize learner motivation and engagement in classes of varying ages and proficiency levels.

The two great Victorian Platonists – George Grote and Benjamin Jowett – are often perceived as championing diametrically opposed perspectives on Plato: utilitarian vs. idealist. This chapter argues that no less important is what they had in common: an ‘atomist’ hermeneutics, in fierce reaction against attempts to make a system out of the dialogues; and a combination of scrupulous attention to the texts as historical documents with insistence that giving Plato his place in the history of philosophy and ‘in the scale of human improvement’ was no less the historian’s obligation. Finally, both men were active in the public sphere, looking for similar ‘modern applications’ of what was best in Plato’s political thought, particularly in the sphere of education.

Conjoint analysis is a commonly used methodology in marketing – it can provide crucial information for new product development,1 product line extensions,2 design of product packaging,3 pricing,4 and various other applications for which it is important to understand consumer preferences. Because conjoint analysis can help market researchers, managers, and ultimately anyone else answer the question of which attributes of a product impact consumer purchase decisions, and to what extent, the method has become more and more frequently applied in the realm of litigation cases.5 For example, in the legal domain, conjoint surveys can contribute to understanding and determining purchase reasons, consumer valuations, and potentially associated damages in matters with claims regarding product liability, false advertising, lack of disclosures, data/privacy breaches, infringement of intellectual property, and antitrust issues. Even though conjoint analysis seems to be a useful instrument when tackling certain legal challenges involving consumer purchase decision-making, courts have frequently rejected conjoint analyses from allowable evidence due to concerns regarding the validity or applicability of its results. The reasons for factfinders’ skepticism are manifold and range from lack of specific expertise to misapplications of the technique. While lack of expertise can be preempted through careful selection of a proficient expert, the process of conducting a reliable conjoint analysis presents hurdles and challenges to anyone: sometimes, conjoint analysis is simply an unsuitable methodology for the question at hand, and at other times intricate aspects of the survey design or sample selections are disregarded. In the same vein, experts have expressed on various occasions that the application of the conjoint methodology may run into conceptual problems such as ignoring supply-side factors when determining consumers’ loss for a specific product characteristic that may have been promised but was not provided. This chapter outlines common applications of conjoint analysis in litigation, describes the basic concepts and approaches in properly applying conjoint analysis, and points to misapplications of conjoint analysis in litigation matters. It will also make evident how conjoint survey design, data analysis, and use of results in litigation matters depend on the complexities of each case.

Unlike pre-med or pre-law resources available on most college campuses, remarkably few compendia are available to explain the nature of, and application process for graduate school in doctoral psychology programs.This chapter offers detailed information regarding the options for graduate school in psychology and the application process to get in.

How radioactive isotope systems are used to derive ages in extraterrestrial materials

This chapter presents an easily followed overview of computational linguistics and where Arabic fits into it. Computational linguistics, often referred to interchangeably as natural language processing (NLP) or human language technologies, is a large and growing interdisciplinary field of research that lies at the intersection of linguistics, computer science, electrical engineering, cognitive science, psychology, pedagogy, and mathematics, among other fields. Research and work on Arabic computational linguistics has lagged behind English and other languages. This is despite a tremendous increase in the relative growth of Arabic NLP in the period between 2012 and 2016. The reason for its slow start is that Arabic presents a series of difficulties to programmers, those being morphological richness, orthographic ambiguity, dialectal variations, orthographic noise, and resource poverty. Those problems have been or are being overcome, and a new generation of researchers has made great strides in the field. This has partly to do with the growing interest in language technologies for opinion mining and translation in social media, which features dialectal Arabic more than MSA. Another motivation is that commercial giants like Apple and Google are interested in applications of Arabic as it is spoken.

Classifications of different types of turbomachines are reviewed to define precisely what is meant by a radial flow turbocompressor. Single-stage compressors and different configurations of multistage compressors are introduced. The basic operating principle of turbocompressors, the Euler turbine equation, is valid for all turbomachines. Numerous applications of radial flow turbocompressors are described, including gas turbines for power generation and propulsion, turbochargers, oil and gas processing, wastewater treatment and the compression of industrial gases in refrigeration and industrial processes. Newer applications in fuel cells and in microcompressors are introduced. This gives an overview of the large range of duty in terms of volume flow rate and pressure ratio for which these machines are used. Some of the special aerodynamic features that are relevant to their design in different applications are highlighted. Aspects of the history of compressors are also given together with a short overview of other books, technical journals and conferences on this topic.

Some industrial products and processes involving colloid rheology are presented within the framework of this book. Paint rheology is presented and analyzed, where effects such as coating defects are avoided by ensuring the right rheology at each stage. Coating formulation is discussed, in particular for waterborne coatings. Carbon black suspensions are also widely used. Their microstructure is considered at different length scales. The resulting rheology includes time effects such as thixotropy. Measurement problems are reviewed as well as their electrical and dielectric behavior. For bitumen and asphalts, thermorheological behavior and aging are important and are controlled by their specific microstructure. A colloidal approach can also be used here. The rheology is discussed on the basis of the Roscoe model. For cement and cement-based products the rheology during shaping and hardening is linked to the underlying physical processes and interactions in the cement. Thixotropy and yield stress are relevant factors here. In the final part large scale processes are tackled. These often involve mixtures of large and small particles. Practical measurements such as the vane and the slump test are discussed, as well as the prediction of suspension behavior in industrial equipment. The compression behavior can be relevant here, including the compressive yield stress.