Benghal dayflower and sicklepod are weeds of economic importance in peanut in the southeastern United States due to their extended emergence pattern and limited effective herbicides for control. Field studies were conducted near Jay, Florida, in 2022 and 2023, to evaluate the effect of planting date and herbicide combinations on Benghal dayflower and sicklepod control in peanut crops. Peanut planted in June was exposed to a higher Benghal dayflower density than peanut planted in May. Sicklepod density was similar between May and June planting dates at 28 d after preemergence and early postemergence herbicide applications, but density was greater in peanut that was planted in June, 28 d after the mid-postemergence application. A preemeergence herbicide application followed by (fb) an early postemergence application of S-metolachlor or diclosulam + S-metolachlor controlled Benghal dayflower 84% to 93% 28 d after early postemergence in peanut that was planted in May, but control was reduced to 58% to 78% in the crop that had been planted in June. Regardless of planting date, a preemeergence application fb S-metolachlor or diclosulam + S-metolachlor applied early postemergence provided <80% sicklepod control 28 d after early postemergence. Imazapic + dimethenamid-P + 2,4-DB applied postemergence improved Benghal dayflower control to at least 94% 28 d after mid-postemergence, but sicklepod control was not >85%. Regardless of the planting date, paraquat + bentazon + S-metolachlor applied early postemergence was required to achieve ≥95% sicklepod control. However, herbicide combinations that included paraquat + bentazon + S-metolachlor reduced peanut yield when planting was delayed to June. In fields that are infested with Benghal dayflower and sicklepod, it is recommended that peanut be planted in early May to minimize the potential impact of these weeds and to increase peanut yield. Late-planted peanut required more intensive herbicide applications to obtain the same peanut yield as the May-planted peanut.

Herbicide resistance in Palmer amaranth and waterhemp is on the rise and poses a great concern to growers in the United States. A multistate screening was conducted for these two weed species in the United States to assess their sensitivity to glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D. The screening was designed to understand the weed sensitivity landscape and emerging trends in resistance evolution by testing each herbicide at its respective label rate and at half the label rate. A total of 303 weed seed accessions from 21 states representing 162 Palmer amaranth and 141 waterhemp seeds were collected from grower fields in 2019 and screened in greenhouse conditions. Statistical power of different sample sizes and probability of survivors in each accession were estimated for each species and herbicide treatment. Overall, the efficacy of glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D against all these accessions was excellent, with greater than 90% average injury. The variability in herbicide injury, if any, was greater with half the label rate of 2,4-D in some Palmer amaranth accessions, while waterhemp accessions had exhibited variable sensitivity with half the label rate of dicamba and glufosinate. The study highlights the value of monitoring weeds for herbicide sensitivity across broader landscape and the importance of glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D herbicides in managing troublesome weeds as part of a diversified weed control program integrated with other chemical, mechanical and cultural practices.

The commercialization of crops that are resistant to 2,4-D plus glyphosate provided an opportunity to growers to apply the herbicide postemergence. However, the potential drift injury of these herbicides to peanuts grown near crops that are resistant to 2,4-D plus glyphosate is concerning. Field experiments were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to evaluate peanut response when exposed at 25, 50, and 75 d after planting (DAP) corresponding to vegetative, flowering, and pod development stages, respectively, to reduced rates of 1/512×, 1/128×, 1/32×, and 1/8× of the labeled rate of 2,4-D plus glyphosate (i.e., 1,077 + 1,132 g ae ha−1, respectively). 2,4-D plus glyphosate was more injurious to peanuts when exposed at 25 DAP compared with 50 and 75 DAP. Similarly, greater canopy height (12%) and canopy width (16%) reductions were observed at 25 DAP compared with 50 and 75 DAP exposure timings (3% to 9%). This result indicates that peanut is more sensitive to 2,4-D plus glyphosate exposure at the vegetative growth stage than at the flowering and pod development stages. However, yield reductions (13% to 16%) were not different between 25, 50, or 75 DAT exposure timings. Regression analysis indicated a linear response for peanut injury, canopy height, width, and yield reduction with an increasing rate of 2,4-D plus glyphosate. The highest rate of 2,4-D plus glyphosate (1/8× of the label rate) resulted in 38%, 22%, and 23% peanut injury, canopy height, and width reduction at 4 wk after treatment, and 33% yield reduction. There was a correlation between peanut injury and yield reduction, with Pearson’s rho values ranging from 0.70 to 0.73. The findings suggest that peanut injury rating data after 2,4-D plus glyphosate drift can be useful for estimating potential yield losses.

The combination of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is a new, pre-packaged herbicide mixture for use in pastures and hayfields in the United States. Unlike many other pasture herbicides, florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is reported to preserve white clover. However, limited research exists on the efficacy of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D on common weed species and on the level of tolerance of white clover to it. Field trials were conducted in Virginia in 2018 to 2020 to evaluate control of various broadleaf weeds with florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D compared to other commonly used herbicides. Field and greenhouse studies were also carried out to assess white clover tolerance. Weed species evaluated included bulbous buttercup, Canada thistle, horsenettle, and broadleaf plantain. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D provided 75% to 99% control of all weeds 90 d after application except for horsenettle (56%), while causing the least white clover injury of any herbicide treatment that was evaluated. Spring herbicide applications resulted in greater bulbous buttercup control compared to fall applications, but florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D provided greater than 81% control from both application timings. There were no differences in aboveground biomass between white clover varieties; however, all herbicides reduced white clover biomass compared to a nontreated control. This research suggests that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D can improve overall forage quality by controlling broadleaf weeds in mixed grass-legume stands while preserving white clover.

Rush skeletonweed is an invasive weed in winter wheat (WW)/summer fallow (SF) rotations in the low to intermediate rainfall areas of the inland Pacific Northwest. Standard weed control practices are not effective, resulting in additional SF tillage or herbicide applications. The objective of this field research was to identify herbicide treatments that control rush skeletonweed during the SF phase of the WW/SF rotation. Trials were conducted near LaCrosse, WA, in 2017–2019 and 2018–2020, and near Hay, WA, in 2018–2020. The LaCrosse 2017–2019 trial was in tilled SF; the other two trials were in no-till SF. Fall postharvest applications in October included clopyralid, clopyralid plus 2,4-D, clopyralid plus 2,4-D plus chlorsulfuron plus metsulfuron, aminopyralid, picloram, and glyphosate plus 2,4-D. Spring treatments of clopyralid, aminopyralid, and glyphosate were applied to rush skeletonweed rosettes. Summer treatments of 2,4-D were applied when rush skeletonweed initiated bolting. Plant density was monitored through the SF phase in all plots. Picloram provided complete control of rush skeletonweed through June at all three locations. Fall-applied clopyralid, clopyralid plus 2,4-D, and clopyralid followed by 2,4-D in summer reduced rush skeletonweed through June at the two LaCrosse sites but were ineffective at Hay. In August, just prior to WW seeding, the greatest reductions in rush skeletonweed density were achieved with picloram and fall-applied clopyralid at the two LaCrosse sites. No treatments provided effective control into August at Hay. Wheat yield in the next crop compared to the nontreated control was reduced only at one LaCrosse site by a spring-applied aminopyralid treatment, otherwise no other reductions were found. Long-term control of rush skeletonweed in WW/SF may be achieved by a combination of fall application of picloram, after wheat harvest, followed by an effective burn-down treatment in August prior to WW seeding.

In current and next-generation weed control technologies, sequential applications of contact and systemic herbicides for postemergence control of troublesome weeds are needed to mitigate the evolution of herbicide resistance. A clear understanding of the impact auxin herbicide symptomology has on Palmer amaranth groundcover will aid optimization of sequential herbicide applications. Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted in Fayetteville, AR, and a laboratory experiment was conducted in Lonoke, AR, in 2020 to evaluate changes in Palmer amaranth groundcover following an application of 2,4-D and dicamba with various nozzles, droplet sizes, and velocities. Field experiments utilized three nozzles: Extended Range (XR), Air Induction Extended Range (AIXR), and Turbo TeeJet® Induction (TTI), to assess the effect of spray droplet size on changes in Palmer amaranth groundcover. Nozzle did not affect Palmer amaranth groundcover when dicamba was applied. However, nozzle selection did impact groundcover when 2,4-D was applied; the following nozzle order XR > AIXR > TTI reduced Palmer amaranth groundcover the most in both site-years of the field experiment. This result (XR > AIXR > TTI) matches percent spray coverage data for 2,4-D and is inversely related to spray droplet size data. Rapid reductions of Palmer amaranth groundcover from 100% at time zero to 39.4% to 64.1% and 60.0% to 85.8% were observed 180 min after application in greenhouse and field experiments, respectively, regardless of herbicide or nozzle. In one site-year of the greenhouse and field experiments, regrowth of Palmer amaranth occurred 10,080 min (14 d) after an application of either 2,4-D or dicamba to larger than labeled weeds. In all experiments, complete reduction of live Palmer amaranth tissue was not observed 21 d after application with any herbicide or nozzle combination. Control of Palmer amaranth escapes with reduced groundcover may potentially lead to increased selection pressure on sequentially applied herbicides due to a reduction in spray solution contact with the targeted pest.

Herbicide management information is lacking for recently developed turf-type bahiagrass germplasm. The objective of this study was to evaluate the herbicide tolerance of nine experimental bahiagrass genotypes compared to the industry standard ‘Argentine’. The experimental entries included Argentine and ‘Wilmington’ mutants, and wild-type breeding lines. Plants were grown under greenhouse conditions, and 12 herbicides were applied at 1× and 2× labeled rates. Bentazon, bromoxynil, carfentrazone + 2,4-D + MCPP + dicamba, and carfentrazone were classified as safe. Fluroxypyr, halosulfuron, and triclopyr + clopyralid reduced growth >50% when applied at twice the label rate. Fenoxaprop, sulfentrazone + imazethapyr, and thiencarbazone + iodosulfuron + dicamba reduced growth and caused turfgrass injury above an acceptable threshold (≥20%). In general, the Argentine mutants showed greater herbicide injury compared to the Wilmington mutants. However, metsulfuron exceeded the acceptable injury threshold and stopped growth in all the genotypes, Argentine and genotype WT6 were the least injured by this herbicide. The experimental genotype WT6 consistently showed the greatest herbicide tolerance. Except for one genotype (WT4), the experimental genotypes responded similarly or better than Argentine to the tested herbicides, except for metsulfuron.

Late-season control of Palmer amaranth in postharvest wheat stubble is important for reducing the seedbank. Our objectives were to evaluate the efficacy of late-season postemergence herbicides for Palmer amaranth control, shoot dry biomass, and seed production in postharvest wheat stubble. Field experiments were conducted at Kansas State University Agricultural Research Center near Hays, KS, during 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The study site had a natural seedbank of Palmer amaranth. Herbicide treatments were applied 3 wk after wheat harvest when Palmer amaranth plants had reached the inflorescence initiation stage. Palmer amaranth was controlled by 96% to 98% 8 wk after treatment and shoot biomass as well as seed production was prevented when paraquat was applied alone or when mixed with atrazine, metribuzin, flumioxazin, 2,4-D, sulfentrazone, pyroxasulfone + sulfentrazone, or flumioxazin + metribuzin, and with glyphosate + dicamba, glyphosate + 2,4-D, saflufenacil + 2,4-D, glufosinate + dicamba + glyphosate, and glufosinate + 2,4-D + glyphosate. Palmer amaranth was controlled by 89% to 93% with application of glyphosate, glufosinate, dicamba + 2,4-D, saflufenacil + atrazine, and saflufenacil + metribuzin resulting in Palmer amaranth shoot biomass of 15 to 56 g m−2 and production of 1,080 to 7,040 seeds m−2. Palmer amaranth control was less than 86% with application of dicamba, 2,4-D, dicamba + atrazine, and saflufenacil resulting in Palmer amaranth shoot biomass of 38 to 47 g m−2 and production of 3,110 to 6,190 seeds m−2. Palmer amaranth was controlled 63% and 72%, shoot biomass was 178 and 161 g m−2, and seed production was 35,180 and 39,510 seeds m−2, respectively, with application of 2,4-D + bromoxynil + fluroxypyr, and bromoxynil + pyrasulfotole + atrazine. Growers should use these effective postemergence herbicide mixes for Palmer amaranth control to prevent seed prevention postharvest in wheat stubble.

Enlist E3TM soybean cultivars permit over-the-top application of labeled glyphosate, glufosinate, and 2,4-D choline products. Increased Enlist E3TM trait adoption and use of 2,4-D choline postemergence across U.S. soybean production systems raise concerns regarding potential for 2,4-D off-target movement (OTM). A large-scale drift experiment was established near Sun Prairie, WI, and Arlington, WI, in 2019 and 2020, respectively. A 2,4-D-resistant soybean cultivar was planted in the center of the field (∼3 ha), while the surrounding area was planted with a 2,4-D-susceptible cultivar. An application of 785 ae ha−1 2,4-D choline plus 834 g ae ha−1 glyphosate was completed within the center block at R2 and V6 growth stages on August 1, 2019, and July 3, 2020, respectively. Filter papers were placed in-swath and outside of the treated area in one upwind transect and three downwind transects to estimate particle deposition. Low-volume air samplers ran for the 0.5-h to 48-h period following application to estimate 2,4-D air concentration. Injury to 2,4-D-susceptible soybean was assessed 21 d after treatment (0% to 100% injury). The 2,4-D deposition in-swath was 9,966 and 5,727 ng cm−2 in 2019 and 2020, respectively. Three-parameter log-logistic models estimated the distance to 90% reduction in 2,4-D deposition (D90) to be 0.63 m and 0.90 m in 2019 and 2020, respectively. In 2020, the 2,4-D air concentration detected was lower for the upwind (0.395 ng m−3) than the downwind direction (1.34 ng m−3), although both were lower than the amount detected in-swath (4.01 ng m−3). No soybean injury was observed in the downwind or upwind directions. Our results suggest that 2,4-D choline applications following label recommendations pose little risk to 2,4-D-susceptible soybean cultivars; however, further work is needed to understand 2,4-D choline OTM under different environmental conditions and the presence of other susceptible crops.

Topramezone and carfentrazone + 2,4-D + mecoprop-p + dicamba (SpeedZone®) are herbicides labeled for POST goosegrass (Eleusine indica L. Gaertn.) control in hybrid bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis Burtt Davy). Field research was conducted in Knoxville, TN, during 2019 and 2020 to evaluate goosegrass control and hybrid bermudagrass tolerance to these herbicides applied alone and in mixture. Treatments included topramezone (12.2 g ha–1), SpeedZone® [carfentrazone (33.6 g ha–1) + 2,4-D (1,029 g ha–1) + mecoprop-p (322 g ha–1) + dicamba (91 g ha–1)] and SpeedZone® + topramezone at 12.2, 6.1, 3.6, or 2.4 g ha–1. A nontreated control was included for comparison. Hybrid bermudagrass tolerance was assessed on four cultivars (‘Northbridge’, ‘Tifway’, ‘Tahoma 31’, and ‘TifTuf’) via visual ratings of turfgrass injury and assessments of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). At the termination of the experiment, SpeedZone® alone and in mixture with topramezone controlled goosegrass better than or equal to topramezone alone. Mixtures of SpeedZone® + topramezone reduced injury on all cultivars compared to topramezone alone, particularly when mixtures delivered ≤6.1 g ha–1 topramezone. Injury subsided on all cultivars by 28 d after treatment regardless of herbicide. Findings suggest that SpeedZone® can be mixed with topramezone at the rates tested herein to minimize hybrid bermudagrass injury from topramezone applications for goosegrass control.

Rapid vegetative growth and adverse application conditions are common factors leading to the failure of postemergence herbicides on Palmer amaranth. A sequential herbicide application, or respray, is often necessary to control weeds that have survived the initial herbicide application to protect crop yield and minimize weed seed production. The optimum timing after the initial application and the most effective herbicide for control of Palmer amaranth has not been characterized. The objectives of these experiments were to determine the optimum herbicide for treating Palmer amaranth regrowth, the optimum timing for each of those herbicides, and how the initial failed herbicide might affect efficacy of a second herbicide application. Bare ground field experiments were performed in 2017 and 2018 in which glufosinate or fomesafen herbicide failure was induced on Palmer amaranth plants that were 30 cm in height. Respray treatments of glufosinate, fomesafen, lactofen, 2,4-D, and dicamba were applied once at timings of 4 to 5 d, 7 d, or 11 d after the initial spray application. Nearly all herbicide treatment and timing combinations increased control by at least 13 percentage points compared to no respray herbicide treatment. Regardless of initial herbicide, glufosinate applied as a respray treatment was the most consistent and efficacious with up to 97% control. The specific herbicide used in the second application impacted final weed control more so than timing of the respray application. For instance, control by glufosinate respray treatments was 10 to 18 percentage points greater than control from lactofen respray treatments, whereas control decreased by 3 percentage points when respray applications of any herbicide were made 11 d after initial application of glufosinate compared to 4 to 5 and 7 d after initial application of glufosinate. In the event of failure to control Palmer amaranth with glufosinate or fomesafen, glufosinate should be applied in order to maximize control.

Hairy fleabane and horseweed are pervasive weed species in agriculture. Glyphosate-resistant (GR) and glyphosate/paraquat–resistant (GPR) biotypes challenge current management strategies. These GR and GPR biotypes have non–target site resistance, which can confer resistance to herbicides with different sites of action (SOAs). This study’s objective was to characterize the response of GR, GPR, and glyphosate/paraquat–susceptible (GPS) biotypes of both weed species to herbicides with a different SOA. Whole-plant dose–response bioassays indicated a similar response among tested biotypes of both weed species to rimsulfuron, dicamba, hexazinone, glufosinate, flumioxazin, saflufenacil, or mesotrione. The hairy fleabane GR and GPR biotypes were 2.7- and 2.9-fold resistant to 2,4-D relative to the GPS biotype (GR50 766.7 g ai ha–1), confirming 2,4-D resistance in hairy fleabane for the first time in California. The GR and GPR biotypes were not cross-resistant to dicamba. No differences in response to 2,4-D were observed among horseweed biotypes with a GR50 ranging from 150.2 to 277.4 g ai ha–1. The GPR biotypes of both species were cross-resistant to diquat, with a 44.0-fold resistance in hairy fleabane (GR50 863.7 g ai ha–1) and 15.6-fold resistance in horseweed (GR50 563.1 g ai ha–1). The confirmation of multiple resistances to glyphosate, paraquat, and 2,4-D in hairy fleabane curtails herbicide SOA alternatives and jeopardizes resistance management strategies based on herbicide rotation and tank mixtures, underscoring the critical need for nonchemical weed control alternatives.

The loss of methyl bromide led vegetable growers to rely more heavily on herbicides to control weeds. Although herbicides can be effective, limited options in vegetable production challenge growers. Identifying new, effective tools to be applied over plastic mulch before planting, for improved weed control with minimal crop injury, would be beneficial. The objective of these experiments was to evaluate the persistence of preplant applications of glyphosate (1,125 or 2,250 g ae ha−1) plus 2,4-D (1,065 or 2,130 g ae ha−1) or dicamba (560 g ae ha−1) over plastic mulch, using analytical techniques and subsequent yellow squash and watermelon response. Glyphosate and 2,4-D were not analytically detected at damaging concentrations on plastic mulch when at least 3.5 cm of rainfall was received after application and before planting. In addition, bioassay results showing less than 10% visual injury for either squash and watermelon, with no growth or yield suppression observed, supported analytical results. In contrast, dicamba concentrations on plastic mulch, regardless of rainfall amount or time between application and planting, remained at damaging levels. Squash yields were reduced by dicamba applied 1 to 30 d before planting, whereas watermelon was more resilient. 2,4-D plus glyphosate applied preplant over plastic mulch can provide an additional herbicide option for vegetable growers. More research is needed to understand the impact of residual activity of 2,4-D when transplants land directly in holes in plastic mulch at the time of application. The relationship of dicamba with plastic mulch is complex, because the herbicide cannot be easily removed by rainfall. Thus, dicamba should not be included in a weed management system in plasticulture vegetable production.

Kochia accessions (designated as KS-4A and KS-4H) collected from a corn field near Garden City, KS, have previously shown multiple resistance to glyphosate, dicamba, and fluroxypyr. These accessions were also suspected as being resistant to photosystem II (PS II) inhibitors. The main objectives of this research were to 1) confirm the coexistence of cross-resistance to PS II inhibitors (atrazine and metribuzin) applied PRE and POST, 2) investigate the underlying mechanism of PS II-inhibitor resistance, and 3) determine the effectiveness of alternative POST herbicides for control of these multiple herbicide–resistant (MHR) kochia accessions. Results from dose-response experiments revealed that the KS-4A and KS-4H kochia accessions were 23-fold to 48-fold resistant to PRE- and POST-applied atrazine and 13-fold to 18-fold resistant to POST-applied metribuzin compared to a known susceptible kochia accession (KS-SUS). Both accessions also showed putative resistance to PRE-applied metribuzin that needs to be confirmed. Sequence analyses of the psbA gene further revealed that all samples from the KS-4A and KS-4H kochia accessions had a Ser264Gly point mutation. A pretreatment with malathion followed by a POST application of atrazine at 1,120 g ha−1 or metribuzin at 630 g ha−1 did not reverse the resistance phenotypes of these MHR accessions. In a separate greenhouse study, alternative POST herbicides, including bicyclopyrone + bromoxynil; bromoxynil + pyrasulfotole; paraquat alone or in combination with atrazine, metribuzin, 2,4-D, or saflufenacil; and saflufenacil alone or in combination with 2,4-D effectively controlled the KS-4H accession (≥97% injury). To our knowledge, this research reports the first case of kochia accessions with cross-resistance to PRE-applied atrazine and POST-applied metribuzin. Growers should adopt diversified weed control strategies, including the use of competitive crops, cover crops, targeted tillage, and harvest weed seed control along with effective alternative PRE and POST herbicides with multiple sites of action to control MHR kochia seedbanks on their production fields.

Hazelnut naturally grows as a multi-stemmed tree. The basal sprouts, known as suckers, grow throughout the season. Suckers are removed to promote a single trunk that facilitates production mechanization and increased yield. In western Oregon, herbicides are the most common method of sucker control, and at least four applications per season are performed in the spring and summer seasons. This study evaluated the efficacy of foliar-applied herbicides currently registered for sucker control in hazelnuts. Season-long and short-term field studies were conducted to assess the efficacy of herbicides to control hazelnut suckers. In the season-long studies, four consecutive applications of treatments that contained 2,4-D, glufosinate, or paraquat provided 50% to 80% control, maintained sucker height at 50 cm or less as compared to 155 cm for the nontreated control, and reduced sucker biomass by 87% as compared to the nontreated control. The short-term study results confirmed the efficacy of 2,4-D, glufosinate, and paraquat for sucker control, and in this study, carfentrazone and saflufenacil reduced sucker biomass to a level comparable to 2,4-D or glufosinate treatment. These results confirm that 2,4-D, glufosinate, paraquat, carfentrazone, and saflufenacil can be used for sucker control in hazelnut and emphasize the necessity of multiple applications during the growing season to control suckers in hazelnut. Proper herbicide selection is important to control suckers with success.

Herbicide active ingredients, formulation type, ambient temperature, and humidity can influence volatility. A method was developed using volatility chambers to compare relative volatility of different synthetic auxin herbicide formulations in controlled environments. 2,4-D or dicamba acid vapors emanating after application were captured in air-sampling tubes at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after herbicide application. The 2,4-D or dicamba was extracted from sample tubes and quantified using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Volatility from 2,4-D dimethylamine (DMA) was determined to be greater than that of 2,4-D choline in chambers where temperatures were held at 30 or 40 C and relative humidity (RH) was 20% or 50%. Air concentration of 2,4-D DMA was 0.399 µg m−3 at 40 C and 20% RH compared with 0.005 µg m−3 for 2,4-D choline at the same temperature and humidity at 24 h after application. Volatility from 2,4-D DMA and 2,4-D choline increased as temperature increased from 30 to 40 C. However, volatility from 2,4-D choline was lower than observed from 2,4-D DMA. Volatility from 2,4-D choline at 40 C increased from 0.00458 to 0.0263 µg m−3 and from 0.00341 to 0.025 µg m−3 when humidity increased from 20% to 50% at 72 and 96 h after treatment, respectively, whereas, volatility from 2,4-D DMA tended to be higher at 20% RH compared with 50% RH. Air concentration of dicamba diglycolamine was similar at all time points when measured at 40 C and 20% RH. By 96 h after treatment, there was a trend for lower air concentration of dicamba compared with earlier timings. This method using volatility chambers provided good repeatability with low variability across replications, experiments, and herbicides.

Halauxifen-methyl is a new synthetic auxin herbicide for control of broadleaf weeds, including preplant applications for corn (Zea mays L.) or soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of halauxifen-methyl in comparison to the current auxin standards, 2,4-D and dicamba, on glyphosate-resistant (GR) horseweed (Erigeron canadensis L.) at different plant heights. In field experiments, a foliar application of halauxifen-methyl at the recommended use rate of 5 g ae ha−1 resulted in 81% control. Dicamba applied at 280 g ae ha−1 provided a comparable level of efficacy of 80%, while 2,4-D at 560 g ae ha−1 resulted in 49% control. The addition of glyphosate improved GR E. canadensis control with 2,4-D more than with halauxifen-methyl or dicamba, possibly due to the higher level of control observed with halauxifen-methyl or dicamba alone. Even though applied at 50 to 100 times lower application rates, the efficacy of halauxifen-methyl on E. canadensis was similar to dicamba and greater than 2,4-D. Thus, halauxifen-methyl should be an effective tool for management of GR E. canadensis before planting both conventional and herbicide-resistant soybean varieties, and it precludes the extended preplant application interval required for dicamba in some soybean management systems.

The previously unknown crystal structure of the basic lead nitrate Pb2(OH)3(NO3) has been determined using single-crystal X-ray diffraction data (Mo-Kα radiation, CCD area detector). The compound is orthorhombic, space group Immm, with a = 8.314(2), b = 8.545(2), c = 17.210(3) Å (R1 = 2.78% for 940 ‘observed’ reflections with Fo > 4σ(Fo)). The layered structure contains a previously unknown cuboid [Pb8(OH)12]4+ cluster and NO3 groups. The study used crystals formed by anthropogenic processes on a medieval mine dump, probably involving black gunpowder used in the blasting of ore. Pb2(OH)3(NO3) is associated with a second nitrate, Pb13O8(OH)6(NO3)4, which was previously designated as “Pb3O3(OH)4(NO3)2” or “Pb3(OH)5(NO3)”. It is rhombohedral, space group , with a = 10.263(1), c = 25.454(5) Å, and a structure solution is in complete agreement with an independent single-crystal study by Li et al. (2001). Probable hydrogen bonds in Pb2(OH)3(NO3) are indicated. Reported data on clusters and lead hydroxide and oxide nitrates are summarized and discussed critically. The probable conditions of formation of the studied samples are evaluated.

Infrared spectroscopy was performed on a thin section of a chalcedonic quartz at high temperature in order to investigate the states and diffusivity of intergranular water. The sample contained 0.3 wt.% of silanol (Si—OH) and 0.3 wt.% of molecular H2O, located mainly at intergranular regions but also as fluid inclusions. We monitored the diffusion of molecular H2O associated with dehydration by in situ analyses at 350—500°C and determined the bulk-diffusion coefficients as expressed by an Arrhenius relationship: Dbulk (m2 sec—1) = 10—4.5 exp(—107±17/RT), where R is the gas coefficient and T the temperature. The activation energy for our sample is similar to those previously reported for diffusion in quartz aggregates with incompletely-connected grain boundaries. This result and our previous measurements of electrical conductivity imply that diffusion of molecular H2O at incompletely- connected intergranular regions is the main mechanism for the dehydration. The diffusion coefficients in chalcedony are larger than those previously reported for rhyolitic glass and other granular aggregates. Intergranular regions, inherent larger pores and cracks created during heating can act as efficient diffusion paths within the chalcedony.