Index

doi:10.1017/9781009284677.022

Index

Footnotes are indicated by n. after the page number.

access to justice problems. see judicial system; land dispossession litigation

Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh, 117, 127

accountability

of banking sector, 164n.29, 173–176

civil society promoting (see civil society actors)

deficiencies of (see corruption and cronyism)

of judges, 331–332

of tax administrators, 211–212

of teachers, 248–249, 258, 260

Acemoglu, Daron, 2, 4, 12, 70, 71

Adhikary, B. Kumar, 149

administrative fragmentation

primary education provision, 229–232, 249, 257–258, 351, 373

tax administration, 200–203, 207–208, 213–214, 349

Adnan, Shapan, 310

Afroze, Sadia, 173n.46

agricultural sector

agro-processing, 112, 131, 132, 133, 347, 353

climate change vulnerability, 60

data on, 34, 35, 190

industrialisation, impact on, 265

land dispossession litigation (see land dispossession litigation)

landholdings fragmentation problem, 264, 353

rural development inequality, 56–57, 256, 295–298

sharecropping, 267, 269, 270, 282, 294, 374

subsistence farming, 59, 282, 310

Ahmad, Munir, 266

Ahmed, Sadiq, 189

Ahmed, Salma, 225, 226

Akerlof, George A., 361n.16

Ali, Muhammad, 148–149

Ali, Zahir, 266

Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, 117, 127

Al Amin, Md, 244

Anti-Corruption Commission, 168, 240, 242, 368, 369, 371, 373–374, 375, 381

Ara, Jesmin, 174n.49

Asadullah, M. Niaz, 224, 225, 257

Association for Social Advancement, 59

Al Atahar, Syed, 266

automation of garments manufacturing, 129–130, 145

Avillez, Ricardo de, 36, 66

Awami League

as dominant political party, 20–22, 338, 362–363, 364, 369, 374–375, 379

pre-2012, 15–17, 18, 19, 337–338

Ayub Khan, Mohammad, 270, 271

BAB (Bankers Association of Bangladesh), 164–165, 173n.47, 176, 348

BAKSAL (Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League), 16–17

Baland, Jean-Marie, 8, 22

Banerjee, Abhijit, 296

Bangladesh Bank (central bank). see also banking sector

autonomy and powers undermined, 51, 96, 164, 167, 170–171, 177, 348, 368

cyber hacking of, 169

governance failures, 174, 175

reform proposals, 178, 182–183, 347, 369, 373, 380–381

Bangladesh Garments Manufacturing and Exporters Associations (BGMEA), 116–117, 122, 127, 129, 140n.54

Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturing Associations (BKMEA), 116–117, 127, 140n.54

Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), 16–17

Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), 17, 18, 19, 20–21, 337–338, 364

‘Bangladesh paradox’

economic growth element (see economic growth and development)

institutional capacity element (see institutional capacity)

institutional reform needs disguised by growth, 376

international ranking data correlated to growth, 13, 29, 75, 77, 141–142, 341

sustainability threats (see economic growth, sustainability threats)

Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), 59, 60, 363

bank types

DFIs (development financial institutions), 148, 154

FCBs (foreign commercial banks), 148, 154, 157, 184

NCBs (see NCBs (nationalised commercial banks))

PCBs (see PCBs (private commercial banks))

Bankers Association of Bangladesh (BAB), 164–165, 173n.47, 176, 348

banking sector

bank types (see bank types)

central bank (see Bangladesh Bank)

competition in, 148–149, 150, 166

as development constraint, 51–52, 147, 149, 159–160, 177–178, 183

economic growth and, 179–180, 181–182

IMF (International Monetary Fund) stabilisation programme, 50, 163, 166

interest rate trends, 149, 156–157

NPLs (see NPLs (non-performing loans))

performance and efficiency, 149, 150, 151, 157–159, 181

cross-country comparisons, 152–154, 180, 183, 347

recapitalisation of failing banks, 147, 160, 169, 177, 183

reform proposals, 149, 150, 178, 182–184, 347, 380–381

regulatory capture and governance failures, 50–52, 147–148, 167, 169, 171–177, 182, 183, 347, 368

regulatory reforms (1991-2013), 164–166, 176

reputational agents for, 173, 183, 184

scams in, 168–169, 173–174, 175–176

structure, 146, 148, 150–151

Beck, Thorsten, 149–150, 180, 183–184

Berglof, Erik, 171

Better Work Programme for Bangladesh (ILO), 127

Beximco Group, 130n.45

BGMEA (Bangladesh Garments Manufacturing and Exporters Associations), 116–117, 122, 127, 129, 140n.54

Bhuiyan, Md Mosharraf Hossain, 132

Bidisha, Sayema Haque, 54, 129

Bird, Richard M., 188, 190, 195, 209, 210, 219

BKMEA (Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturing Associations), 116–117, 127, 140n.54

Blanchard, Emily, 126n.43

Bleaney, Michael, 103, 104

BNP (Bangladesh Nationalist Party), 17, 18, 19, 20–21, 337–338, 364

bonded warehouses, 111, 116, 117n.20, 132, 133, 345n.10

BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee), 59, 60, 363

bribery. see corruption and cronyism

budget-making process, 196, 197, 211

bureaucracy

civil service recruitment, 240, 370, 371, 372

good governance indicators, 74, 84

international ranking, 74–77, 80

key deficiencies, 78, 91–92

reform proposals, 381

business environment

good governance indicators, 2, 3, 74, 84

international ranking, 74–77, 80, 367

key deficiencies, 77–78, 91–92, 96

business-politics nexus. see also corruption and cronyism; informal institutions

corporate governance in developing countries, 171–172

corporate tax, low compliance rate, 205–206, 219, 349

COVID-19 pandemic, business support, 61, 367

‘deals space’ framework, 22–23, 114–115, 116, 138, 140, 346, 353, 365

lobbying, 63, 96, 242

mega-projects, political factors, 44

political settlement (see political settlement)

capital accumulation, 33, 34

capital expenditure, 42–44, 47, 48, 52

caretaker government mechanism, 18–20, 338

central bank. see Bangladesh Bank

Chaudhury, Nazmul, 242, 257

child mortality rate, 58

China

Bangladeshi exports to, 131

education data, 229

export diversification data, 106

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119, 123–124, 135

civil justice system. see judicial system

civil service. see bureaucracy

civil society actors

NGOs (see NGOs (non-governmental organizations))

political participation, 141, 338, 363

print media, 173, 183, 368, 375

surveyed (see institutional capacity, CIS (country institutional survey))

climate change, 60–61

clothing sector. see RMG (ready-made garments) sector

Compact for Continuous Improvements in Labour Rights and Factory Safety, 127

Comptroller and Auditor General, 371, 374, 375, 381

Constitution of Bangladesh (1972), 16, 18, 301, 303, 337

corporate governance in PCBs (private commercial banks), 171–176

corporate tax, 132, 194, 205–206, 212, 218, 220, 221, 349

corruption and cronyism. see also business-politics nexus; informal institutions

accusations as political weapon, 20, 21

Anti-Corruption Commission, 168, 240, 242, 368, 369, 371, 373–374, 375, 381

banking scams, 168–169, 173–174, 175–176

business impact, 135

generally, 4–5, 23, 361

international rankings, 13, 77, 195

in land administration (see land administration and management, corruption and cronyism)

NPLs (non-performing loans) and, 51, 96, 161–163, 347

strategies against, 358–359, 366, 370–372, 374–376, 379

tax evasion facilitated by, 195–196, 204–205, 207, 218, 219, 349

in teacher recruitment and career progression, 239–242, 246, 248, 253, 258–259, 351

COVID-19 pandemic

business support during, 61, 367

healthcare response, 63, 368

institutional deficiencies exposed by, 336–337, 356, 376–377, 379

primary education, impact on, 62, 352

remittances, impact on, 339

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, impact on, 61–62, 63, 340, 345, 367

unequal impacts, 62–63, 348, 370

cronyism. see corruption and cronyism

customary institutions. see informal institutions

customs duties, 46, 111, 116–117, 198, 199–200, 207, 214–217

Dawe, David, 104

DBL Group, 130n.45

‘deals space’ framework, 22–23, 114–115, 116, 138, 140, 346, 353, 365

debt, national, 47, 48–49

Degryse, Hans, 180

Deininger, Klaus W., 266–267

democracy

dominant party regime, 20–22, 338, 362–363, 364, 369, 374–375, 379

elections, 18–20, 22, 338, 374–375

good governance indicators, 74, 84

history in Bangladesh (see political history of Bangladesh)

international ranking, 74–77, 79–80

key deficiencies, 77, 91–92, 97

Deposit Insurance Fund, 172

Devarajan, Shantayanan, 141

development financial institutions, 148, 154

Dhaka, 56–57, 86, 214, 241–242, 262n.2, 287

digitalisation initiatives

generally, 372, 378

for land administration, 263, 278, 282, 285, 292, 382

for tax administration, 211, 213, 371

direct taxes. see also indirect taxes; tax mobilisation

corporate tax, 132, 194, 205–206, 212, 218, 220, 221, 349

personal income tax, 46, 189, 194, 203–205, 212–213, 349

property taxes, 213–214, 280–281

diversification of exports. see export diversification

Dixit, Avinash, 361n.16

dominant party regime, 20–22, 338, 362–363, 364, 369, 374–375, 379

Dutch disease, 134

duty drawback system, 111–112, 133

economic growth, sustainability threats

climate change vulnerability, 60–61

COVID-19 pandemic impact (see COVID-19 pandemic)

export basket concentration, 40, 41, 44–45, 64–65, 95, 101, 105–107, 136, 344

diversification challenges (see export diversification)

health-related challenges, 58

land administration deficiencies (see land administration and management)

LDC status trade preferences, imminent loss, 45, 64, 102, 130–131

NPLs (see NPLs (non-performing loans))

primary education deficiencies (see primary education)

private investment, stagnation of, 32, 34, 48, 95–96, 147, 159, 284

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, competitive threats, 41, 44–45, 64–65, 102, 123–124, 137, 340

tax reform failures (see under tax mobilisation)

economic growth and development

banking sector (see banking sector)

explanatory factors, 29–30, 34, 63–64, 67–70

remittances (see remittances)

for RMG sector growth (see under RMG (ready-made garments) sector)

external finance, 49–50, 339

growth data, 13, 29, 31–32, 33, 55–56, 66, 105–106, 185, 338–339

industrial policy (see industrial policy)

industrialisation, 34–35, 43–44, 262, 265

inflation rate, 156–157, 182

institutional reform needs disguised by growth, 376

investment (see investment)

Perspective Plan 2041 development strategy, 32, 185, 187, 198, 209–210, 213, 349

public education, impact on, 224–225

public revenue and expenditure (see government expenditure; tax mobilisation)

social matters (see labour market; poverty and inequality)

structural change, 34–38, 66–67

sustainability threats (see economic growth, sustainability threats)

trade policy reforms, 38, 39, 41 (see also exports; imports)

education services expenditure, 57, 160, 232–237, 245–246. see also primary education

elections, 18–20, 22, 338, 374–375

elite capture. see corruption and cronyism

emigrant workers

data on, 55

illegal occupancy of land during absence, 320, 324, 330

remittances from (see remittances)

employment. see labour market

energy services and infrastructure, 43

Engerman, Stanley L., 138

Envoy Textiles Ltd, 130n.45

Ershad, Hussain Muhammad, 17–18, 163, 337

Esa, Adiba Jamal, 262n.2

exchange rate system, 38, 111, 113n.13, 134, 140–141

excise duties, 46, 206, 221

expenditure. see government expenditure

Export Development Fund (Bangladesh Bank), 132, 133

export diversification

challenges, 131–135, 136, 364

introduction to study, 101–103

literature review, 103–104

policy reforms to promote, 136, 145, 340

of RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 124–126, 137, 140, 141, 361

Export Processing Zones, 113, 286, 313, 345

exports

concentration of, 40, 41, 44–45, 64–65, 95, 101, 105–107, 136, 344

diversification challenges (see export diversification)

contribution to growth (general data), 68–70

exchange rate system, 38, 111, 113n.13, 134, 140–141

LDC status trade preferences, imminent loss, 45, 64, 102, 130–131

mis-invoicing of, 160

ports, 134–135, 207

RMG exports (see RMG (ready-made garments) sector)

external finance, 49–50, 339

factory safety issues, 121–122, 126–128, 344–345

Farmers Bank, 169, 174n.47, 175

farming. see agricultural sector

FCBs (foreign commercial banks), 148, 154, 157, 184

FDI (foreign direct investment), 42, 136, 145, 206, 263

Feldman, Shelley, 310

female labour force, 54, 55, 115n.17, 121, 129, 226, 255

Fernandes, Ana Margarida, 224

Ferrantino, Michael, 104

financial sector. see banking sector

foreign aid, 49–50, 339

foreign commercial banks (FCBs), 148, 154, 157, 184

foreign direct investment (FDI), 42, 136, 145, 206, 263

Freund, Caroline, 141n.56

garments sector. see RMG (ready-made garments) sector

Geisler, Charles, 310

gender discrimination, 92–93, 304

Gertler, Paul, 296

Ghatak, Maitreesh, 267, 296, 298

Ghosh, Atish R., 103

Ghura, Dhaneshwar, 195

girls’ participation in primary education, 59, 225, 227–228, 237–238, 255, 256

Global Financial Crisis (2008), 30

global rankings. see institutional capacity, international rankings

good governance indicators, 2, 3, 74, 84

Gordon, Roger, 192–193

‘Governance and the Law’ (World Bank report), 3

government expenditure. see also tax mobilisation

budget-making process, 196, 197, 211

generally, 46–48, 187

infrastructure development, 42–44

public services provision, 57–58, 160, 196

primary education (see primary education)

recapitalisation of failing banks, 147, 160, 169, 177, 183

Grameen Bank, 59, 363

Greenaway, David, 103, 104

Greenwood, Janinka, 244

growth and development. see economic growth and development

growth diagnostics, 7, 12, 82

Gupta, Abhijit Sen, 195

Hakobyan, Shushanik, 126n.43

Haque, Sheikh Touhidul, 48n.17

al-Hasan, Md, 225

Hasan, Md Ikbal, 265–266

Hassan, Mirza, 22, 23, 116, 128, 200

Hausmann, Ricardo, 7, 12, 82, 104

Health, Rachel, 256

healthcare

COVID-19 pandemic response, 63, 368

expenditure data, 58, 160, 340

NGO provision of, 58, 59, 60, 340

‘policy paralysis’ in, 368–369

recruitment of healthcare professionals, 240

reform proposals, 374

historical case studies, 4

Hossain, Monzur, 149, 150

Hossain, Naomi, 260

human rights

good governance indicators, 74, 84

international ranking, 74–77, 80, 375

international standards, non-compliance, 118

key deficiencies, 78, 91–92, 97

Hussain, Zahid, 134

ICT (information and communication technology) sector, 54, 131

Imberman, Scott A., 260

IMF (International Monetary Fund)

stabilisation programme, 50, 163, 166

VAT reform promoted by, 198, 201, 202, 207

imports

customs duties, 46, 111, 116–117, 198, 199–200, 207, 214–217

data on, 38, 39, 107–108

non-trade barriers, 139

tariffs, 40–41, 139, 214

income taxes. see direct taxes

indemnity declarations, 17

India

Bangladeshi exports to, 131

banking sector data, 152, 154, 157

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 62, 377

education data, 57, 228, 255, 256, 257

export diversification data, 106

institutional capacity data, 79, 183

land management problems, 266–267

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119, 123–124, 135

tax performance data, 191

indirect taxes. see also direct taxes; tax mobilisation

customs duties, 46, 111, 116–117, 198, 199–200, 207

excise duties, 46, 206, 221

VAT (see VAT (value-added tax))

Indonesia, education data, 226, 255, 256, 257, 260

industrial policy

development, 110–111

export diversification (see export diversification)

other reform proposals, 136, 381

RMG sector incentives (see RMG (ready-made garments) sector, incentive schemes for)

supremacy of ‘deals’ over, 345–346, 364–367, 377, 378–379

industrialisation, 34–35, 43–44, 262, 265

inequality. see poverty and inequality

infant mortality rate, 58

inflation rate, 156–157, 182

informal institutions. see also business-politics nexus; corruption and cronyism

concept, 8

‘deals space’ analytical framework, 22–23, 114–115, 116, 138, 140, 346, 353, 365

informal judicial authorities, 328

positive role, 114–115, 342–343, 357

in RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 113–117, 128–129, 137–138, 140, 346, 357, 365

informal labour market, 52–54, 62, 118, 119, 122, 191, 206, 339

information and communication technology (ICT) sector, 54, 131

infrastructure development, 42–44

institutional capacity

CIS study (see institutional capacity, CIS (country institutional survey))

corruption and cronyism (see corruption and cronyism)

good governance indicators, 2, 3, 74, 84

in-depth studies of (see banking sector; land administration and management; primary education; tax mobilisation)

informal institutions (see informal institutions)

institutional diagnostic findings (see institutional diagnostic findings)

‘institutions’ term, 8, 11

international rankings (see institutional capacity, international rankings)

introduction to study, 71–72

key deficiencies, 77–78, 91–92, 95–97, 98, 357–359, 377–378

COVID-19 pandemic exposing, 336–337, 356, 376–377, 379

synthetic institutional indices construction, 72–74

institutional capacity, CIS (country institutional survey)

critical institutional areas identified, 87–88, 342

lessons provided by, 97–98

open-ended interviews, 94–95

perceived functioning of institutions, 88–92, 95–97, 98, 342–343

gender affecting, 92–93

political affiliation affecting, 93–94, 95

questionnaire design and execution, 82–86

institutional capacity, international rankings

correlated to growth (‘Bangladesh paradox’), 13, 29, 75, 77, 141–142, 341

corruption and cronyism ranking, 13, 77, 195

cross-country comparisons, 74–77, 78–81, 183

land administration ranking, 74–77, 80, 266–267, 284

rule of law ranking, 74–77, 78, 80, 304–305, 308, 328

institutional diagnostic findings

deep factors explaining deficiencies, 360, 362–364, 376

introduction, 335–337, 356

key institutional deficiencies, 357–359, 377–378

COVID-19 pandemic exposing, 336–337, 356, 376–377, 379

proximate causes of deficiencies, 359, 360–362, 373

reform proposals mapped to deficiencies, 364–376, 378–382

Institutional Diagnostic Project

background, 1–6, 11–12

development, 1, 6–8, 12–13

methodology, 8–10, 14–15, 81–85

interest rate trends, 149, 156–157

International Monetary Fund. see IMF (International Monetary Fund)

international rankings. see institutional capacity, international rankings

investment

foreign direct investment (FDI), 42, 136, 145, 206, 263

government capital expenditure, 42–44, 47, 48, 52

private investment, stagnation of, 32, 34, 48, 95–96, 147, 159, 284

Iqbal, Mohammad, 148

Islam, Md Raihan, 224

Islam, Sabina, 225

Islamic political parties, 17, 18, 21–22

Jamaat-e-Islami, 17, 18, 21–22

Jamalpur Economic Zone, 287n.37

Jatiya Party, 18, 20

Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal, 16

jhut (garment manufacture by-products), trade in, 122–123

jobs market. see labour market

Johnson, Simon, 141

judicial system. see also land dispossession litigation; rule of law

expeditiousness, 305–307, 329, 355

fairness, 303–305, 328

independence, 97, 307–309, 322, 328–330, 354–356, 372

structure, 301–303

Kaufmann, Daniel, 141, 142

Kee, Hiau Looi, 144–145

Keefer, Philip, 72

Khan, Mushtaq, 2, 71, 114, 116, 370

Khan, Nurool Quader, 109–110

khas (unowned land) distribution, 265, 270, 271, 282, 319, 324, 374

Kissinger, Henry, 184

Knack, Stephen, 72

Kneer, Christiane, 180

Korean RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 109, 135, 137, 138–140

Kraay, Aart, 141, 142

Kuncic, Aljaz, 142n.58

labour market

female and youth employment, 54–55, 115n.17, 121, 129, 226, 255

gender discrimination and wage gap, 92–93, 225–226

growth data, 33, 34

informal market, 52–54, 62, 118, 119, 122, 191, 206, 339

outward migration (see emigrant workers)

productivity data, 34–38, 66–67

RMG sector (see RMG (ready-made garments) sector, employment in)

self-employed workers, 219–220, 221

teachers (see teachers)

labour unions, 118, 345, 361

land administration and management. see also land dispossession litigation

climate change vulnerability, 60–61

complexity of, 265–266, 276–278, 280–284, 292–293, 352, 373

corruption and cronyism affecting (see land administration, corruption and cronyism)

future research questions, 296–299

glossaries, 293–294, 323

good governance indicators, 84

institutional structure, 272–276

international ranking, 74–77, 80, 266–267, 284

khas (unowned land) distribution, 265, 270, 271, 282, 319, 324, 374

land acquisition and transfer process, 96–97, 266, 276–277, 283–284, 316–317

land laws and policies, 267–272, 296, 297, 353, 374

land scarcity problem, 262, 264–265, 363

property taxes, 213–214, 280–281

reform proposals, 263, 278, 285–286, 291–293, 354, 382

SEZs (special economic zones) initiative, 263, 286–291, 293, 298–299, 353–354

sharecroppers’ rights, 267, 269, 270, 294, 374

land administration and management, corruption and cronyism

administrative complexity facilitating, 265–266, 276–278, 283

cross-country comparisons, 266–267

examples, 279

forced sales, 264–265

land acquisition process for SEZs affected by, 288–291, 298, 353–354

land dispossession litigation affected by, 96–97, 276, 317–320, 330, 354–355, 358, 372

recruitment process affected by, 286–287

reform proposals blocked by political elites, 278, 285–286, 353, 354

land dispossession litigation

actors involved, 314–316

congestion of proceedings, 283, 284, 300–301, 317, 318, 321, 355

corruption and cronyism affecting, 96–97, 276, 317–320, 331, 354–355, 358, 372

dispute types, 309–312, 320, 330

judicial system generally (see judicial system)

procedures, 312, 313, 316

qualitative research, methodology and case studies, 312, 313–314, 324–327

reform proposals, 292, 322, 331, 355–356, 382

laws as ‘institutions,’ 8

LDCs (least developed countries) trade preferences

imminent loss, 45, 64, 102, 130–131

for RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 39, 101n.2, 107, 108–109, 125, 140

leather goods sector, 111, 112, 131–132, 133, 137, 214, 345, 347

Lewis, Arthur, 2, 34, 35

Li, Wei, 192–193

lobbying, 63, 96, 242

local government, 196, 213–214, 258

Lyon, Steve, 330

Mahmud, Shabuz, 174n.49

Mahmud, Wahiduddin, 115n.18, 175

Maitra, Biswajit, 224

Malaysia

banking sector data, 156, 157

education data, 57, 255, 256, 257

Mallick, Lingaraj, 224

Mansur, Ahsan H., 149

McGillivray, Mark, 225, 226

McMillan, Margaret, 34

mega-projects, 43–44

Mehmood, Sultan, 329

Melo, Jaime de, 144

Menzel, Andreas, 121

Mercer-Blackman, Valerie, 125

MFA (Multifibre Arrangement) quota, 39, 63, 101–102, 105, 109, 114, 135, 345

microfinance and microcredit, 56n.28, 59, 363

migrant workers. see emigrant workers

minimum wages in RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119–121, 128

Mlachila, Monfort, 114n.14

Mobarak, A. Mushfiq, 255

Mohammadi Group, 130n.45

Mookherjee, Dilip, 267, 298

Muhammad, Anu, 115n.17

Mujib (Sheikh Mujibur Rahman), 16–17, 337

Mukhopadhyay, C.K., 224

Multifibre Arrangement (MFA) quota, 39, 63, 101–102, 105, 109, 114, 135, 345

Muralidharan, Karthik, 249

Narayan, Paresh Kumar, 68

national debt, 47, 48–49

NCBs (nationalised commercial banks). see also banking sector

governance failures, 171–172

IMF stabilisation programme conditionalities for, 50

loan default scandals and trends, 161–163, 164

NPLs (non-performing loans) of, 51–52, 96, 149, 154, 155

privatisation of, 150, 163

recapitalisation of, 160, 177

nepotism. see corruption and cronyism

Nesa, Mossamet Kamrun, 225

newspapers, 173, 182, 368, 375

NGOs (non-governmental organisations)

generally, 64, 363, 375

healthcare provision by, 58, 59, 60, 340

microfinance and microcredit provision by, 59, 363

primary education provision by, 59, 60, 229–230, 235, 251, 258–259

Nguyen, Chu V., 148–149

Nguyen, Lien Phuong, 195

Nigerian banking sector, 180

non-governmental organisations. see NGOs (non-governmental organisations)

non-performing loans. see NPLs (non-performing loans)

North, Douglass, 2, 8, 71

NPLs (non-performing loans). see also banking sector

bank efficiency monitoring and, 158n.22

data on, 50–51, 154–155, 166

as development constraint, 51–52, 147, 149, 159, 160, 177–178, 346, 347–348

loan default scandals and trends, 161–163, 164

of NCBs (nationalised commercial banks), 51–52, 96, 149, 154, 155

of PCBs (private commercial banks), 155, 165, 175–176

in RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 147, 155, 156, 347

NRB Commercial Bank, 168, 175

Nunn, Nathan, 142

Office of the Comptroller and Auditor General, 371, 374, 375, 381

organised crime, 123

Oriental Bank, 169

Osmani, Siddiqur R., 56n.28

Ostry, Jonathan D., 103

Pack, Howard, 138n.51

Pakistan

education data, 57, 255, 256, 257

institutional capacity data, 75, 76, 79, 183

judicial independence, 329–331

land management problems, 266

tax performance data, 191

Patrinos, Harry A., 224, 225

Paul, Biru Paksha, 240

PCBs (private commercial banks). see also banking sector

corporate governance in, 171–177

licensing of, 150, 163, 165, 166, 175, 182

NPLs (non-performing loans) of, 155, 165, 175–176

percentage share of total industry assets, 150–151

performance and efficiency, 154, 157, 159

Perera, T.G.U.P., 266

personal income tax, 46, 189, 194, 203–205, 212–213, 349

Perspective Plan 2041 development strategy, 32, 185, 187, 198, 209–210, 213, 349

Pesaran, M. Hashem, 68

pharmaceutical sector, 132

Pierola, Martha Denisse, 141n.56

Piñeres, Sheila Gutierrez de, 104

political history of Bangladesh

chronology of governments, 24–25

competitive democracy era (1990–2011), 18–20

democracy installation (1972–90), 16–18

dominant party regime (2012– ), 20–22, 338, 362–363, 364, 369, 374–375, 379

GDP growth rate mapped to political events, 31–32

independence, 15–16, 115

summary, 337–338

political settlement

analytical framework (Khan), 114n.15, 116

in banking sector, 163

in RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 114, 118–121, 128–129, 361, 362, 364

politics and business. see business-politics nexus

population data, 31, 58, 225, 262, 265

ports, 134–135, 207

post-Washington consensus, 3

poverty and inequality

access to justice problems (see judicial system; land dispossession litigation)

climate change and, 61

COVID-19 pandemic, unequal impacts, 62–63, 348, 370

data on, 13, 29, 55–56

education to alleviate, 225

educational services inequality, 57, 255–256

gender discrimination, 92–93, 304

infant and maternal mortality rates, 58

khas (unowned land) distribution, 265, 270, 271, 282, 319, 324, 374

microfinance to alleviate, 56n.28, 59, 363

rural development inequality, 56–57, 255–256, 295–298

PP 2041 development strategy, 32, 185, 187, 198, 209–210, 213, 349

Prichard, Wilson, 200

primary education

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 62, 352

curriculum and examination system, 243–244, 247–248

dropout rate, 228, 238, 247

economic importance, 222, 223–226, 350

enrolment data, 57, 139, 227, 228, 255–256, 340, 350

girls’ participation, 59, 225, 227–228, 237–238, 255, 256

low public expenditure on, 57, 160, 232–237, 245–246, 261

multiple actors problem, 229–232, 249, 258, 351, 373

NGO provision of, 59, 60, 229–230, 235, 251, 258

private schools, 234n.19, 235, 258

quality concerns generally, 57, 222–223, 228–229, 256–258

reform proposals, 257–260, 381

school infrastructure deficiencies, 237–238, 247, 261, 370

school types, 250–251

teacher-related concerns (see teachers)

print media, 173, 183, 368, 375

Pritchett, Lant, 22, 71, 114, 116, 142

private commercial banks. see PCBs (private commercial banks)

private investment, stagnation of, 32, 34, 48, 95–96, 147, 159, 284

private schools, 234n.19, 235, 258

productivity

education, contribution to, 223–224

labour productivity data, 34–38, 66–67

total factor productivity growth, 33, 34, 65–66

property taxes, 213–214, 280–281

PROSHIKA, 59

Psacharopoulos, George, 224

public revenue and expenditure. see government expenditure; tax mobilisation

Rahman, Hossain Z., 262n.2

Rahman, Mahbubur, 225

Rahman, Md Taibur, 265

Rahman, Mustafizur, 53, 149, 183, 225

Rahman, Sanzidur, 224

Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur (Mujib), 16–17, 337

Rahman, Sultan Hafeez, 282

Rahman, Ziaur (General Zia), 17, 161, 337

Raihan, Selim

on COVID-19 support for businesses, 367

on ‘deals space’ and business-politics nexus, 22, 23, 63, 116, 138, 140

on exports, 111, 131, 142

on labour market, 53, 54, 128, 129

on land administration, 265

on primary education, 222

Rana Plaza factory collapse (2013), 41, 53, 108, 117, 118, 122, 127–128, 345

Rao, B. Bhaskara, 67

Rashid, Mohammed A., 116n.19

Ravaillon, Martin, 137

Razzaque, Abdur, 111

ready-made garments sector. see RMG (ready-made garments) sector

recapitalisation of failing banks, 147, 160, 169, 177, 183

regulation. see also rule of law

banking sector, regulatory deficiencies, 50–52, 147–148, 166–167, 169–177, 183, 343, 346–348, 368

generally, 357–359, 367–369

land laws and policies, 267–272, 296, 297, 353, 374

remittances

capital accumulation effects, 68, 69–70

data on, 41–42, 49–50, 63–64, 68, 69

healthcare financing from, 58

from RMG (ready-made garments) sector workers, 44, 52

vulnerability of, 339

Ricciuti, Roberto, 195

RMG (ready-made garments) sector

automation of, 129–130, 145

by-products (jhut), trade in, 122–123

competitive threats, 41, 44–45, 64–65, 102, 123–124, 137, 340

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 61–62, 63, 340, 345, 367

dependency on RMG exports, 40, 41, 44–45, 64–65, 95, 101, 105–107, 136, 344

diversification challenges (see export diversification)

diversification within, challenges, 124–126, 137, 140, 141, 361

employment in (see RMG (ready-made garments) sector, employment in)

exports, data on, 29, 36, 38–40, 63–64, 101, 105–108

exports, destination countries, 40, 108

factory safety issues, 121–122, 126–128, 344–345

genesis and development, 109–110, 114, 135–136, 137, 138–139

global value chain participation, 102–103, 125–126, 142–145

incentive schemes for (see RMG (ready-made garments) sector, incentive schemes for)

informal institutions in, 113–117, 128–129, 137–138, 140, 346, 357, 365

investment in, 52, 108

NPLs (non-performing loans) in, 147, 155, 156, 347

political settlement in, 114, 118–121, 128–129, 361, 362, 364

subcontracting in, 117, 118

trade preferences for, 39, 101–102, 107, 108–109, 125, 140

imminent loss, 45, 64, 102, 130–131

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, employment in

factory safety issues, 121–122, 126–128, 344–345

female workers, 54–55, 115n.17, 121, 129, 226, 255

informal and precarious employment, 53

job cuts, 54, 129–130

trade union suppression, 118, 345, 361

unrest over pay and conditions, 102, 118, 128

wages, 119–121, 128

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, incentive schemes for

bonded warehouses, 111, 116, 117n.20, 132, 133, 345n.10

enforcement by industry bodies, 116–117

Export Processing Zones, 113, 286, 313, 345

generally, 110–113, 137, 139–140, 144, 345

MFA (Multifibre Arrangement) quota, 39, 63, 101–102, 105, 109, 114, 135, 345

Robin, Iftekhar, 150

Robinson, James, 2, 4, 12, 71

Rodrik, Dani, 7, 34, 72, 104, 141n.55, 141n.57, 365–366

rule of law. see also regulation

access to justice problems (see judicial system; land dispossession litigation)

corruption and cronyism (see corruption and cronyism)

good governance indicators, 74, 84

international ranking, 74–77, 78, 80, 304–305, 308, 328

key deficiencies, 77, 91–92, 97

laws as ‘institutions,’ 8

Rupali Bank, 162

rural development inequality, 56–57, 255–256, 295–298

Samad, Faisal, 129n.44

sanitation and safe drinking water, 43, 55, 60, 196, 238, 247

Sattar, Zaidi, 134

schools, primary. see primary education

SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals), 30, 48, 222

self-employed workers, 219–220, 221

Sen, Binayak, 56n.28, 225

Seror, Avner, 329

sex discrimination, 92–93, 304

SEZs (special economic zones) initiative, 263, 286–291, 293, 298–299, 353–354

sharecropping, 267, 269, 270, 282, 294, 374

Shareef, Sabrina, 134

Sharif, Md Sabbir, 262n.2

Sheikh Hasina, 20–21, 337

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Mujib), 16–17, 337

Shin, Yongcheol, 68

social inequality. see poverty and inequality

Sonali Bank, 161–162, 168

South Korean RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 109, 135, 137, 138–140

special economic zones (SEZs) initiative, 263, 286–291, 293, 298–299, 353–354

Sreehatta Economic Zone, 289–291, 298

Sri Lanka

banking sector data, 152, 154, 156, 157

education data, 57, 255, 256, 257

institutional capacity data, 79, 183

land management problems, 266

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119

state capacity, 45, 358–359, 369–372

state-owned banks. see NCBs (nationalised commercial banks)

structural change to economy, 34–38, 66–67

Subramanian, Arvind, 141n.57

Sundararaman, Venkatesh, 249

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 30, 48, 222

Talukder, Sumaiya Kabir, 282

tariffs, 40–41, 139, 214

tax mobilisation. see also government expenditure

budget-making process, 196, 197, 211

compliance levels, 195–196, 203–206, 207

cross-country comparisons, 188–190, 191, 192–193, 194, 206

institutional deficiencies, 46, 95–96, 195, 197, 200–203, 207–208, 218, 349–350

reform efforts, 197–203, 207, 350, 371

reform proposals, 208–212, 218–221, 350, 371, 373, 378, 380

specific tax areas, 212–217

revenue data, 47, 185–187, 190, 192, 193, 203–204, 205, 348–349

supply-side variables affecting, 190–195

tax policy and tax administration unseparated, 200, 207, 210, 373

teachers. see also primary education

absenteeism, 5, 235, 242–243, 248–249, 260

career progression opportunities, 241–242, 246, 254, 260

competence, 243–244, 259–260

recruitment process, 238–240, 246, 252, 253, 258, 259, 351

shortages of, 237, 244–245

training and salaries, 233–237, 245–246, 249, 259–260, 351–352, 370

Tebhaga Movement, 267, 268, 294

technology sector, 54, 131

textiles sector. see RMG (ready-made garments) sector

Thadden, Ernst-Ludwig von, 171

Thailand, banking sector data, 152, 154, 156, 157

total factor productivity growth, 33, 34, 65–66

trade policy reforms, 38, 39, 41. see also exports; imports

trade preferences for LDCs (least developed countries)

imminent loss, 45, 64, 102, 130–131

for RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 39, 101n.2, 107, 108–109, 125, 140

trade unions, 118, 345, 361

transport services and infrastructure, 43, 54

Trebbi, Francesco, 141n.57

Trefler, Daniel, 142

Twum, Anna, 144

Uddin, Gazi Salah, 150

Uddin, Mahtab, 53

unemployment, 53. see also labour market

unowned land (khas) distribution, 265, 270, 271, 282, 319, 324, 374

VAT (value-added tax)

administration reforms, 198–199, 201–203, 206–207, 211, 212

reform proposals, 218–219, 220, 221, 350, 371

revenue from, 46, 191–192, 193, 195, 217, 349

RMG (ready-made garments) sector exemption, 112

Velasco, Andrés, 7, 12

Vietnam

education data, 57, 226, 228

export diversification data, 106

RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119, 123–124, 135, 144

Vision 2041 development policy, 209

wages in RMG (ready-made garments) sector, 119–121, 128

war crimes trials, 21–22

War of Independence, 15–16, 17, 59

Washington Consensus, 1–3

water and sanitation services, 43, 55, 60, 196, 238, 247

Westphal, Larry E., 138n.51

Wijenayake, Nelson, 266

women

discrimination against, 92–93, 304

empowerment via education, 225–226, 255

female labour force, 54, 55, 115n.17, 121, 129, 226, 255

maternal mortality rate, 58

as microfinance beneficiaries, 59

underrepresentation in top-tier posts, 86

Woodruff, Christopher, 121

Yang, Yongzheng, 114n.14

youth employment, 55

Zia, General (Ziaur Rahman), 17, 161, 337

Zia, Khaleda, 18, 20, 21, 337

Zia, Tareq, 21

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