In the contemporary post-industrial knowledge society, education systems and learning and teaching practices rapidly develop and face novel challenges. These developments apply to all cultural domains, primarily language and communication, where digital environments and social media continue to evolve. New communication formats, practices, and forms of social interaction constantly emerge within this online environment. Therefore, educational institutions and English language teachers need to respond by engaging in ongoing learning and enhancing their knowledge and qualifications (London, Reference London2011). Individual flexibility needs to be supplemented by a willingness to innovate and learn at a systemic level. Therefore, education systems that provide insufficient support for individuals must be viewed as dysfunctional (Gill, Reference Gill2005). It is thus essential that all individuals preparing for or working in educational and training institutions are cognisant of the ongoing transformations taking place and nurture their teaching and learning competences and methods of knowledge transfer in accordance with the needs of their respective societies.

Within this frame of reference, this chapter begins by clarifying the concepts of teacher professionalism and professionalisation of teaching in the field of English language teaching (ELT). The purpose of this book – a conceptual and reflective guide to English language teacher education – is rationalised and the concept of Bildung is briefly introduced. The latter, being an essential dimension of the formation of the professional self, refers to the lifelong process of personal development and cultural maturation and to the final result of this process: namely, the state of being educated. Standards of teacher education, as well as teacher competences, are also included. Finally, the target audience and the structure of the book are outlined.

1.1 Professionalising English Language Teaching

Since the 1970s, the topic of teacher professionalism has been the focus of a series of intense scholarly debates in the fields of education and sociology. Some scholars have argued that teaching meets the requirements to be labelled a profession, while others have disputed this. In recent times, however, the theoretical and empirical literature has focused on the professional practice of English language teachers and resolutely considers teaching a profession (e.g., Burns & Richards, Reference Burns and Richards2009; Caspari & Grünewald, Reference Caspari and Grünewald2022; Crandall & Christison, Reference Crandall and Christison2016; Elsheikh et al., Reference Elsheikh, Coombe and Effiong2018; England, Reference England2020; Farrell, Reference Farrell2015; Liu & Berger, Reference Liu and Berger2015; Mann & Walsh, Reference Mann and Walsh2017; Richards, Reference Richards, Burns and Richards2012; Seery, Reference Seery2008). Professionalising teacher education, however, requires institutional settings that are geared to the needs of the profession and, certainly, to the needs of all those that are taught (Gutierrez et al., Reference Gutierrez, Alexander and Fox2019; Luke & Gourd, Reference Luke and Gourd2018). Therefore, teacher education cannot be regarded as merely transforming academically trained experts in various disciplines into classroom practitioners in different subjects, including language teaching. The most substantial implication of language teaching as a profession is that it is also regarded as an academic discipline in its own right, one engaged in researching the entire field, developing concepts and theories of language learning and teaching, devising academic curricula for teacher education, and equipping future teachers not only with the available disciplinary knowledge but also with appropriate attitudes and pedagogical and ethical values.

The research literature thus renounces the attributes approach, whereby occupations are compared against features of the professional model (Ingersoll & Perda, Reference Ingersoll, Perda, Ballantine and Spade2008). By the same token, it contends that the uniqueness of the teaching profession lies in the fact that it is an epistemic community or a network of experts that exhibits and employs advanced knowledge (both theoretical and practical), possesses shared values, provides an essential public service, and adheres to ethical precepts. Moreover, teaching is a profession that feels sufficiently able to convey itself to the public in a highly valued manner and elicits respect and trust. It is therefore crucial that its uniqueness be emphasised whenever possible and its differences cultivated where appropriate.

However, recent works reveal that the teaching profession is not deemed particularly prestigious (Reis Monteiro, Reference Reis Monteiro2015). It is frequently seen as easy to enter, poorly remunerated, subject to a centralised management system, and offering few exciting avenues for the future enhancement of careers. Teachers are often equated with public servants or treated as ‘craft’ workers (Reis Monteiro, Reference Reis Monteiro2015). To free teachers from this paradoxical situation, it is important to stress that they represent a profession that lays the foundation for all others and teaches people ‘to be human and to live humanly with other human beings’ (Reis Monteiro, Reference Reis Monteiro2015, p. 67). Thus, it merits special recognition, respect, and appreciation on these grounds alone. Furthermore, applying the socioeconomic connotations of ‘craft’ workers to teachers is inappropriate. This reduces their standing to a profession that can be pursued by anyone (Jarvis, Reference Jarvis2005). It is essential that teacher professionalism be understood as the result of academic research and the development of concepts and theories of learning and teaching. Moreover, like any other profession, it must be seen as a blend of qualifications and competences (Chapters 2 and 3), values and beliefs, and behaviours – all of which are required of teachers. These are explicitly specified in government-approved standards regulating their pedagogical practice and professional conduct, mirrored in the corresponding school curricula, and practised in institutionalised settings such as secondary schools and colleges.

In addition, teachers – both during teacher education at universities/teacher training colleges and on the job – need to develop a self-conception and attitude commensurate with those of academically educated professionals who have acquired the disciplinary knowledge and competences required to be experts who reflect continuously upon their classroom practices and experiences (Cirocki & Farrell, Reference Cirocki and Farrell2017a; Cirocki & Widodo, Reference Cirocki and Widodo2019; Farrell, Reference Farrell2015; Klippel, Reference Klippel2016; Legutke & Schart, Reference Legutke and Schart2016; Mann & Walsh, Reference Mann and Walsh2017). To facilitate this, they must develop a profound knowledge and awareness of their students’ living and learning conditions and of the social, media, and communicative changes that affect students’ lives. Moreover, the willingness to keep learning also requires the constant innovation of the disciplines that inform educators’ professional knowledge and competence with respect to language teaching. Theoretical, pedagogical, and methodological developments necessitate regularly updating the academic and pedagogical knowledge base of teaching English (Kowalczuk-Walędziak et al., Reference Kowalczuk-Walędziak, Korzeniecka-Bondar, Danilewicz and Lauwers2019; Kumar et al., Reference Kumar, Chander and Kaushik2019).

This blend of qualifications, competences, values, beliefs, and behaviours necessitates a distinction between institutional (in some contexts referred to as sponsored) and independent professionalism (Eckerth & Leung, Reference Eckerth, Leung, Vyas and Patel2009; Evans & Esch, Reference Evans and Esch2013; Liu & Berger, Reference Liu and Berger2015). The former is related to externally endorsed standards and qualification frameworks as well as disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical practice, as defined by regulatory bodies, educational institutions, or professional associations (Chapter 3). The latter, by contrast, is more personal in nature. Developing over time, independent professionalism, also defined as professional autonomy, denotes teachers’ engagement in a reflective analysis of their behaviours and pedagogical practices with reference to professional knowledge. It also refers to the principled and conceptualised decision-making that mirrors their ‘individual values and the social, political and pedagogical impact of their actions’ (Liu & Berger, Reference Liu and Berger2015, p. 38). This volume, however, does not strictly follow this differentiation. Instead, institutional and independent types of professionalism are combined under the label of teacher professionalism. This is because professional teachers are expected to exhibit elements of both in order to deliver high-quality, evidence-based, learner-centred, and individualised teaching. In this way, teachers can expertly represent the present-day profession of language teaching in teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), teaching English as a second language (TESL), teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), or teaching English as an additional language (TEAL) contexts; within this book, all four of these terms are subsumed under one umbrella term – ELT.

Notably, the twenty-first century holds high expectations regarding the professionalism of teachers. The contemporary knowledge society is one in which all knowledge acquired at different stages of education and training should be prevented from becoming obsolete. For example, recent literature (e.g., Cirocki & Burns, Reference Cirocki and Burns2019; Cirocki & Farrell, Reference Cirocki and Farrell2017a; Cirocki & Levy, Reference Cirocki and Levy2018; Crandall & Christison, Reference Crandall and Christison2016; Dudeney & Hockly, Reference Dudeney and Hockly2007; Richards, Reference Richards2015) within the field of ELT suggests that teachers are expected to be lifelong learners who are adventurous, innovative, imaginative, reflective (Chapters 4 and 9), autonomous (Chapter 5), technology/media-savvy (Chapter 7), and adaptable. Chapter 9 further shows how beneficial all these characteristics are within teacher communities and how they contribute to teachers’ collaborative, innovative, and sustainable development if promoted in a systematic manner. The ability to innovate and constantly develop one’s qualifications and competences is a professional skill to be acquired and learnt. The willingness and ability to constantly innovate concepts and methods of teaching and learning are therefore central competences of functional teacher education in post-industrial society (Kennedy et al., Reference Kennedy, Latham and Jacinto2016; Kowalczuk-Walędziak et al., Reference Kowalczuk-Walędziak, Korzeniecka-Bondar, Danilewicz and Lauwers2019). In general, this willingness to innovate and accomplish a higher degree of reflection on one’s professional actions must be understood as the necessary professionalisation of any teaching activity. True professionalism includes constant reflection on one’s own classroom activities and their conditions (i.e., reflective practice), as well as lifelong learning in response to the changing conditions of language use and communication and teaching and learning processes (Bauer, Reference Bauer2002; Cirocki & Farrell, Reference Cirocki and Farrell2017a; London, Reference London2011). Teachers are also required to respond promptly to changes induced by new educational reforms, typically established and controlled by political leaders, with practitioners often excluded from the process. Central control of the education sector also increases the liability of other stakeholders in education, which contributes to the ongoing enrichment or alteration of current definitions of teacher professionalism.

Taking all these factors into account, the topic of teacher professionalism requires further exploration within the field of ELT. It is vital that a clear and comprehensive understanding of the concept of professionalism is obtained, especially with regard to the standards that English language practitioners must adhere to in their daily pedagogical practice. Clear guidelines are required to direct teachers along their journeys towards professional excellence. In a similar vein, the concept of professionalisation – the procedure that entails nurturing the knowledge, skills, norms, identities, and values required to become a member of a professional organisation – needs to be examined. Through this process, English language teachers acquire target language awareness, disciplinary knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge (Chapter 2) and develop an understanding of their roles that permits them to perform as professionals in their field. Though the process is necessary in the ELT field, it is not an easy undertaking. Its complexity is contingent on embracing cultural and social changes; administrative regulations and guidelines; curricular reforms; diverse education systems; and the established routines, practices, and identities of the institutions involved in teacher education and the schools in which teachers work across the globe. All these challenges bring new perspectives and outlooks to the table, guiding professional practice, determining professionalism within the field of ELT, and shaping the entire profession.

1.2 The Purpose of This Book: A Guide to English Language Teacher Education

The purpose of this book is to develop and provide a conceptual and reflective guide to English language teacher education that is useful for teacher educators, classroom practitioners, students pursuing teaching degrees, school administrators and management teams, and policymakers. This means its focus must extend to issues beyond the English language classroom. For instance, schools and professional teacher education bodies need to respond to the increasing social and cultural diversity of classrooms and learning groups. This requires a broader perspective on the complex process of educating English language teachers, considering the domain of ELT as a whole and including the extensive body of research generated. Thus, approaches to teacher education, especially English language teacher education, need to be grounded in contemporary pedagogical theories and contingent on high-quality teacher education programmes.

The spectrum encompassing what is researched, described, and designed in such a meta-pedagogical theory ranges from general theories of education and Bildung (Section 1.3), defined as self-cultivation and self-realisation, through conceptual descriptions of the connections between teaching and learning, to empirical research on processes of instruction and language learning (Hu, Reference Hu2015; Siljander et al., Reference Siljander, Kivela and Sutinen2012; Varkøy, Reference Varkøy2010). In addition, theories around content construction (selection of texts, materials, and resources; see Chapter 6 for details) and the description of language competences and skills constitute part of English language teachers’ professional expertise. Since the early 2000s, there has also been a pronounced interest in a more precise framing of the competences that form part of the teaching profession and language learning (Section 1.4).

However, a conceptual approach to professionalising English language teacher education must also account for the culture-specific contexts of education systems, the various histories and traditions of different systems of teacher training and education, and established classroom practices (Kumaravadivelu, Reference Kumaravadivelu2006; Vinogradova & Shin, Reference Vinogradova and Shin2020). This is why a systematic description of teacher qualifications and competences is all the more desirable; it makes it possible to compare and share concepts and experiences across cultures and societies and define standards and goals that synthesise different educational and disciplinary accomplishments. This helps create a culturally and systemically coherent concept of teacher education for a specific school system in accordance with the established traditions and norms of teacher education.

Such a systematic approach will help justify why ELT, derived from pedagogy and applied linguistics, should be regarded as a discipline in its own right, as the purpose and goals of the school of ELT and English language (teacher) education need to be researched, conceptualised, and theorised. The following four functions can be attributed to ELT as a discipline:

1. 1. A pedagogy of ELT for learning describes and investigates teaching and learning processes in institutions. Such a pedagogy researches and explores strategies for teaching English in which learning is a planned, guided, and goal-oriented process, as opposed to the intuitive, natural, non-guided process taking place during early childhood. ELT as a discipline seeks to examine and describe teaching and learning constellations as well as the factors that determine them and offers teachers concepts for optimising the conditions of teaching (e.g., for designing optimal learning environments) or criteria for making individual decisions for their classrooms (the use of media, learning and teaching methods, etc.).

2. 2. A pedagogy of ELT for learning is an educational theory. Beyond teaching and learning processes, a pedagogy of language teaching for learning concerns itself with more general questions about the social conditions, frameworks, and objectives of all teaching and learning and of institutional education. In particular, it strives to learn more about the impact and effects of sociocultural changes on teaching and learning as they occur, for instance, in the wake of migration and the movement of refugees (Cirocki & Farrelly, Reference Cirocki and Farrelly2019; Shapiro et al., Reference Shapiro, Farrelly and Curry2018). Since the 2000s, educational standards and curricular frameworks of reference have emphasised these close interconnections between more general political conditions, the objectives of language learning and instructional methods, and approaches at the classroom level.

3. 3. A pedagogy of ELT for learning is a theory for the classroom. Such a pedagogy develops theories or concepts for the content and design of lessons and teaching units. This is also how recent developments in the social sciences and in the pedagogy of teaching English, applied linguistics, media studies, and cultural studies have been taken up and integrated into new concepts and proposals for learning and teaching.

4. 4. A pedagogy of ELT for learning is a theory of the ELT profession. Research on and questions surrounding the conceptualisation of teaching as a profession are paramount for teacher education and educational processes at all levels, ranging from school and classroom organisation to the design of lessons and materials. This pedagogical theory investigates teachers’ subjective theories of teaching and learning, their professional self-image and self-conceptions, and their roles as learning facilitators, classroom managers, or mediators. As a theory of the competences required for designing and delivering teaching and learning processes, it theorises the way teachers must be educated to teach students and organise processes of language learning or, more specifically, of teaching and learning English.

The preceding discussion on the functions and purposes of the pedagogical theory of teaching for learning applies to all forms of language teaching at all stages, from teaching English as a second or foreign language in kindergartens and primary schools to upper secondary classrooms and adult language courses. However, if language teaching in general, and English language teaching more specifically, is a profession reliant on academic disciplines and professional training, the critical question that arises is as follows: How can the field of ELT be systematised and described so that all the different types of knowledge and professional competences required are institutionalised, including standards of teacher education (Chapter 3) and curricular definitions? Regarding ELT, teacher educators require a clear idea of the its disciplinary structure and its various components, including language learning itself, but also more general pedagogical concepts such as learning as social interaction or classroom management. Only then will it be possible to define English language teachers’ essential and desirable skills and competences (Chapter 3).

The primary aim of this book is to systematise the areas of English language teacher education and define the basic set of core pedagogical competences required to teach English successfully and professionally in institutions such as schools and universities but also in vocational language training and adult language learning. There is also a growing awareness of the need to professionalise the early stages of ELT in kindergartens and primary schools; as in secondary schools, learning English at these levels must become increasingly oriented towards professional concepts of teaching for learning and towards the systematic transfer of knowledge and the training of language skills. Although the focus of this book is on the ELT context, its contribution to the education of language teachers is much broader. The various concepts included in this book are transferable and apply to teachers of other languages. It is therefore hoped that this volume will also guide teacher education programmes focusing on languages other than English.

Prior to setting out the core areas of professional teaching and the concepts relevant to teacher education, ELT needs to be situated within the broader context of societies that require competent users of the target language. In the twenty-first century, these societies are characterised by high degrees of globalisation; by social, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity; by digitised communication and representation; and, in Western societies at least, by individualised ethical and religious orientations (Eunson, Reference Eunson2015; Healey, Reference Healey2020; Jarvis, Reference Jarvis2007). All these aspects inform the current theories and practices that underpin ELT and stimulate original research in this domain. Regrettably, existing knowledge on these aspects is rather abstract and vague. Another essential point to emphasise is that language learning is inevitably connected to the reception, comprehension, and production of texts in diverse media formats (Chapter 7). The English language classroom must therefore account for the cultural knowledge communicated by texts, the range of communicative practices that prevail in societies or communities, and the diverse needs – both objective and subjective – of language learners. For instance, refugees bring cultural backgrounds and beliefs to classrooms in a cultural context that is often substantially different to their own (Cirocki & Farrelly, Reference Cirocki and Farrelly2019; Shapiro et al., Reference Shapiro, Farrelly and Curry2018). Their objective in learning English may therefore differ substantially from that of a learner in a secondary classroom, where the principal aim is to prepare students for vocational training or university studies in their own country.

Every teacher has more or less precise ideas about the kind of education learners should undergo, their background and predispositions, and the educational goals for which instruction in their classroom is designed. However, such theories and reflections are rarely made explicit; they often remain implicit and subjective, shared through informal conversations in the staff room with colleagues or friends. This is not especially surprising because, socially and academically, ideas about the goals and purposes of education are often inconsistent, fuzzy, and controversial. One of the implications of the professionalisation of English language teacher education is that concepts of education require closer inspection, reflection, and re-definition – hence the current book.

One of the underlying assumptions of this volume is that defining and describing the goals of professional English language teacher education is impossible without recourse to a more general theory of education (Section 1.4). If no such pedagogical framework of reference is available, pedagogical decision-making becomes arbitrary as there are no criteria for deciding on the type and number of competences that are to be taught and acquired both in a school subject and in teacher education. In fact, as Klafki (Reference Klafki2007, p. 44) observes in relation to school education, there is a ‘necessity for overarching pedagogical goals and categories’. If, however, overarching, foundational notions of education and definitions that broadly specify the purposes of learning English and the societal goals of language education are not available, pedagogical efforts are reduced to a collection of incoherent and inconsistent individual activities and dysfunctional teaching practices.

1.3 Bildung, Communication, and English Language Learning

Language learning is often conceptualised as the process of learning grammatical structures and words. Such a narrow idea of what it means to learn a language, particularly English, ignores the cultural and individual role of language and communication. Once the latter is considered, it becomes evident that whole societies are built on languages – their own and others – and that every individual who learns a new language undergoes a personal transformation and personality development. Therefore, in the European context and as a critical response to both the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (hereafter CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001, 2020) and educational standards in Germany, the concept of Bildung in the Humboldtian sense has been revived and re-introduced into the realm of (English) language education (Bausch et al., Reference Bausch, Burwitz-Melzer, Königs and Krumm2005; Heidt, Reference Heidt2015). Consequently, it is given a prominent place in this volume. As Hu (Reference Hu2015, p. 17) contends, Bildung is a neo-humanistic concept that emphasises ‘a process of holistic growth, self-realization of the individual as an entirety, freedom, and self-understanding as well as a sense of social responsibility, and which puts the development of the individual’s unique potential and self at the center of educational processes’.

The consequences of this vision of an individual’s self-reflexive positioning vis-à-vis the world and the individual’s role in a society are far-reaching (Breidbach, Reference Breidbach2007; Koller, Reference Koller2018; Kramsch, Reference Kramsch2009). The precondition for an individual’s freedom and autonomy in a society is determined by this vision of their position, which offers and warrants the individual sociocultural agency and spaces for independence. At the same time, individuals engage in building and sustaining precisely the kind of civil and democratic society that is able to offer its members spaces for citizenship and active participation (The New London Group, Reference Cope and Kalantzis2000).

Therefore, in its broadest sense, education must be regarded as a process of empowerment and as providing a time and space in which individuals can develop their intellectual potential, talents, and personalities (Chowdhury, Reference Chowdhury2018; Mawani & Mukadam, Reference Mawani and Mukadam2020). At the same time, schools and teachers need to ensure that each individual develops in a socially and culturally responsible manner, one that serves the interests and needs of both society and its citizens. This process of sociocultural development couples Bildung with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which regards human development as a socially mediated process influenced by various semiotic modes and tools, the most important of which is the human language (Vygotsky, Reference Vygotsky1978). According to Vygotsky (Reference Vygotsky1978), learning within institutional contexts or professional communities (Section 9.3) is a collaborative process whereby individuals acquire culturally valuable skills and capabilities through social interactions with peers and more knowledgeable others.

Language and communication, including English as a second or a foreign language, are thus of paramount importance in an approach informed by the Humboldtian idea of Bildung and education. There can be no true formation and empowerment of the learning subject without language, and all additional languages enhance an individual’s symbolic empowerment (Kramsch, Reference Kramsch2009). This insight significantly informs all English language teaching and learning processes. From this standpoint, English language education reaches far beyond teaching language structures and linguistic repertoires. These are merely different means to an end, albeit crucial ones, and English language instruction must be embedded in the complex, holistic process of developing personalities, with individuals as subjects and citizens seeking to find their place in a society and the world.

As brief and incomplete as any discussion of the concept of Bildung must be within this introductory chapter, it is of fundamental importance to clarify the functions and purposes of school education and language learning that provide English language teachers and teacher educators with clear guidance. As mentioned previously, a central concept is the notion of the individual as the reference point of all democratic and humane thinking. However, a certain degree of commonality and cultural consensus is also required upon which societies – democratic societies in particular – can be built. This constant act of striking a balance in education between the needs of the individual and those of the society ultimately remains an irreconcilable dichotomy. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure that education equips individuals with all the abilities, competences, and skills required to enable them to participate actively in societies and cultures in every respect, including political discourses and cultural controversies. At the same time, to facilitate the socialisation of individuals, it is necessary to ensure a ‘minimum standard of cultural commonality, the “basic skills”, on which all societies depend’ (Klieme et al., Reference Klieme, Avenarius, Blum, Döbrich, Gruber, Prenzel, Reiss, Riquarts, Rost, Tenorth and Vollmer2003, p. 59).

Therefore, the two critical concepts through which the roles of individuals and the needs of societies are defined are participation and self-determination or autonomy. These rely on the basic assumption that societies – democratic ones in particular – are constituted through the active participation of individuals and that these individuals determine both the nature and form of this society and how they are able and prepared to participate and live in it. As Klieme et al. (Reference Klieme, Avenarius, Blum, Döbrich, Gruber, Prenzel, Reiss, Riquarts, Rost, Tenorth and Vollmer2003, p. 63) observe:

The competences taught during an educational process and acquired by students serve precisely this purpose; education and English language learning enable and prepare learners to participate fully and maturely both in the society in which they live and in shaping their own lives and their more immediate lifeworld. It is evident that the concept of education as Bildung affects language teaching and learning, particularly in communication and language where cultural and social participation materialises. This is also why the role of English cannot be overestimated. In an age of globalised economies, worldwide electronic communication, and the global circulation of knowledge and cultural artefacts, being proficient in English as a global language in multiple institutions and contexts is one of the preconditions of cultural participation and an individual’s discursive competence.

From these general educational goals at all levels and the learners’ Bildung, the goals of English language teacher education and English language teachers’ competences can be derived. Teachers should be equipped with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and competences that enable them to pursue school education goals and all institutional language learning in democratic societies. This is the only way they can account for ongoing social, cultural, and media changes. In the twenty-first century, ways of life and thinking are characterised by the constantly diminishing power of cultural, political, ethical, or religious meta-narratives. These have been replaced by a large number of diverse, often highly individualised, approaches that re-define the social position of the individual and place upon them the burden of self-realisation. Ongoing and fundamental changes also concern the interconnectedness between nation states and individual societies and cultures to the world society (globalisation), not least in terms of migration and economic, cultural, academic, and professional exchange.

Another fundamental change, and ongoing transformation, is that of the technological revolution; digitisation affects all fields of technical, economic, and cultural development, particularly communicative and media practices. In the digitised and globally networked world, any text can, in principle, be linked to any other text; the number of possible links is infinite. In the electronic age, digital hypertext has therefore become the most frequent kind of text (Section 7.3). Even formerly conventional print texts are now converted into digital texts. As a result, an author’s authority over any text and its subsequent outreach, whether a blog post, a video clip, or a tweet, is enormous and incalculable, and the definition of a text’s sense (or non-sense) lies with the user. Because the English language classroom is continually concerned with the reception and production of all kinds of texts, it is essential to teach orientation strategies within the digital universe of texts, text selection strategies, and information processing among teachers and learners alike.

It is vital that the field of ELT constantly reflects upon and conceptualises its notions of communication and communicative practices. English language instruction and teacher education programmes must account for all these fundamental transformations as they directly affect communicative practices and standards. New genres and new modes of communication continually emerge (Chapter 7). The role of verbal language is changing to the point that it has become just one mode of communication among a range of others, visual images in particular (The New London Group, Reference Cope and Kalantzis2000). Therefore, English language learners and teachers need to be able to cope with enormous numbers of texts, instead of dealing with a single or very limited number of texts, as is usually the case in coursebooks. Also, the selection of texts is no longer a privilege of teachers or textbook makers, and canonisations of the conventional kind, such as prescriptive reading lists, are now barely enforceable. This abundance of accessible texts and information presents the individual with various perspectives, orientations, and meanings. The uniformity and clarity of orientations, life plans, and values are fading, completely different cultural contexts are now easily accessible, and remixes and combinations of hitherto unknown orientations, non-uniform designs, identities, and cultures have become standard practice. The resulting concepts are hybrid or patchwork-like and often temporary or tentative.

In terms of significance and interpretation, the meanings into which readers of texts are initiated in their own and other languages are no longer socially and culturally given; rather, the individual must be able to construct meanings in a more autonomous fashion. Consequently, in every encounter with a text, many individual constructions of meaning and readings are possible (Roe et al., Reference Roe, Smith and Kolodziej2019; Yandell, Reference Yandell2013). This means that ‘subjective abilities that enable the individual to create valid orientations for themselves’ (Brater, Reference Brater and Beck1997, p. 155) are required. Training and fostering the language learners’ ability to construct meaning and significance must therefore be one of the primary goals of teaching English, such that comprehension and active communication are understood as active, meaning-generating activities in all interactional and cultural contexts. Because discourses in a globalised world do not or cannot take place monolingually, the necessity and importance of communicating in a second or a foreign language, particularly in English as a lingua franca, is constantly increasing. As the following section will demonstrate, this philosophy underpins recent frameworks of (English) language learning and teacher education programmes.

1.4 Frameworks of Language Learning and Teacher Education

Curricular frameworks, both of language learning and of teacher education, seem to be the most impactful instruments of professionalisation as they are the result of educational and language policies and political decision-making. Since, in many countries, teacher education is in the hands of state authorities, it is evident that frameworks providing standards and curricular objectives will be implemented and become highly influential in classrooms and teacher education institutions. In most countries, professional teacher education is therefore not only concerned with classroom practices and pedagogical methods and approaches but also with describing the abilities and competences of learners of foreign and second languages, including English, and with defining the curricular objectives of foreign language learning at certain stages and/or at the end of the learning process.

Such structured forms of systematisation can be regarded as first-order frameworks of the goals and outcomes of institutional language learning, as opposed to individual methods of language learning that require the help of language learning software or online courses. Given that teacher education’s contents, concepts, and goals are more or less directly derived from these first-order frameworks, they are highly relevant to teacher education. Moreover, drawing and depending upon the latter leads to the formation of second-order teacher education frameworks and theories. These must be able to specify the professional knowledge and competence that both prospective and in-service teachers must acquire to accomplish the language learning goals defined for their classrooms within first-order frameworks.

It is therefore recommended that current educational literature, policies, and teacher education programmes promote such an approach. This would also align with influential and powerful EU documents such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (Council of Europe, 2001; and the Companion Volume, 2020, in its most recent version: Council of Europe, 2020), where learning and teaching are emphasised in the sub-title. As the plural of languages in the title also suggests, this European framework conceptualises learning for all languages, not just English. Nevertheless, all these proposed documents apply directly to the teaching and learning of English.

The purpose of the following two sub-sections is to illustrate the philosophy of such frameworks using examples from Europe and the United Kingdom, as the frameworks developed there not only have a lot to offer but have also proven to be highly influential regarding school and language education.

1.5 Outlining the Disciplinary Realm of English Language Teaching

One of the implications of professionalisation is that classroom practitioners will have a complete understanding of how the various dimensions of teaching and learning English are defined and conceptualised. In this introductory chapter, it may suffice to provide a brief sketch – or an outline – of these critical areas to standardise and systematise the field of ELT (Figure 1.1). Later, in Chapter 3, the various pedagogical areas, teacher actions, and classroom interactions for which teachers need to be professionally prepared are considered in more detail.

Figure 1.1 Outline of the ELT profession

Note: Adapted from Hallet (Reference Hallet2006a, p. 36). Copyright 2023 by Wolfgang Hallet.

Regarding specification and teacher competences, it is important to distinguish two major areas that define an English language teacher’s actions and interactions. On the one hand, these areas are more or less directly related to the classroom and all the teaching and learning processes within it (Section 1.5.1). On the other hand, there are more general areas that are not language-oriented, that is, institutional and pedagogical areas in which every teacher is continuously and inevitably involved (Section 1.5.2). These two areas are briefly discussed next.

1.6 Readership and Structure of This Book

The themes in this conceptual and reflective guide to English language teacher education have been chosen to appeal to a wide readership. The primary audience includes English language teacher educators and classroom practitioners, undergraduate and postgraduate students pursuing English language teacher education programmes, and school administrators, management teams, and policymakers. Additionally, this volume is a valuable resource for pre-/in-service English language teacher professional development providers, teacher trainers delivering certificate courses (e.g., Cambridge CELTA and DELTA, London Trinity College CertTESOL and DipTESOL or the US TESOL certificate), and educational and applied linguistics researchers whose research interests lie within the area of English language teacher education and professional development. Because the various concepts included in this book are universal, it is hoped that this volume will also be of value to teachers and teacher educators of other languages.

This volume is divided into nine chapters. They offer an in-depth discussion of key topics and concepts in the field under consideration and explain how these contribute to the professionalisation of ELT. As clarified earlier, Chapter 1 prepares the ground so that the whole field of ELT can be systematised. It identifies the various areas that must be covered in the education of teachers and presents a rationale that regards teaching and learning English as part of the broader process of Bildung. It also argues why teaching the English language must be defined as a profession that requires academic education and practical training in the classroom context.

Chapter 2 focuses on teacher professionalism. This discussion is supported by briefly examining the professional standards obligatory for the teaching occupation. These are discussed in relation to three dimensions: professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional engagement. The chapter then analyses the construct of teacher professional identity, followed by a concise consideration of the relationship between professionalism and ethics. It concludes with constructive suggestions for sustaining teacher professionalism.

Chapter 3 examines more closely the various professional areas mapped out and sketched in Chapter 1. Such mapping is expanded and developed into a more detailed description of the competences teachers must acquire and develop as lifelong learners. This chapter is designed to provide teachers and their professional educators with a clear idea of what must be taught and learnt on teacher education programmes and in educational institutions such as schools.

Chapter 4 focuses on reflective practice, which aims to increase teachers’ comprehension of the teaching–learning process, enhance their experiences of teaching and learning, engage with daily work operations at a deeper level, and increase their personal and professional efficacy. The chapter first explains what reflective practice means and what this involves. This includes elucidating concepts such as reflection, critical reflection, and reflexivity. This is followed by a summary and endorsement of Farrell’s theoretical framework for reflective practice. The chapter outlines the tools teachers are advised to adopt to examine and enhance their teaching reflexively and concludes with the importance of teacher-led research.

Chapter 5 revolves around the concept of teacher autonomy, which is a key component of teacher professionalism. The chapter defines what teacher autonomy means and presents an autonomous teacher’s profile. This is followed by an overview of empirical projects investigating teacher autonomy. The aim is not only to show what has been done and what the findings reveal but also to identify possible gaps practitioners and educational researchers could fill in future research. The focus then shifts to pedagogical strategies for promoting teacher autonomy in teacher education programmes or professional development events.

Chapter 6 discusses designing language learning tasks and materials as one of the outstanding professional activities teachers should systematically engage in. The chapter addresses this aspect of the profession and describes in detail the various options and considerations available to teachers. In particular, it is argued that materials design and task development define the types of learning processes in which target language learners engage. This is also why designing tasks and materials always go hand in hand.

For a long time, media have been an established part of the language classroom. However, teaching and learning English in the twenty-first century also need to account for the rapid changes in media and the emergence of digital communication. The latter, in particular, has created a large number of new communication environments and communicative practices. Chapter 7 examines these developments and proposes how the English language classroom can adapt to these changes and how teachers can prepare to meet this challenge.

Chapter 8 focuses on the notion of teacher leadership. Contemporary English language education requires teachers who can passionately implement effective and innovative practices in the classroom, develop and take ownership of new pedagogical strategies, utilise professional knowledge to contribute to school improvement plans, and establish close relationships with other school stakeholders to enhance the student learning experience as well as overall school functioning. With this in mind, the chapter defines the concept of teacher leadership and presents a profile of a teacher leader who can exert their influence, both in the classroom and in the wider school, through a variety of formal and informal channels. This is followed by a discussion of the process of developing teacher leadership.

Chapter 9 scrutinises the general assumptions underlying the previous chapters. The constant cultural transformations we observe and the challenges learners encounter in their lifeworld can be successfully addressed in the classroom only if teachers are willing to develop their knowledge and professional competences further. The chapter argues that this is best achieved if teachers regard and establish themselves as a community of professional learners and practitioners. It therefore proposes creating professional development communities for ELT practitioners in a principled fashion and provides examples of such communities in action. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of future directions and recommends that professional ELT be viewed in three meta-dimensions: lifelong learning, classroom ethnography, and educational leadership.

Taken as a whole, this conceptual and reflective guide contributes to the existing body of literature on professionalism in and professionalisation of ELT. It broadens and deepens the concept of teacher professionalism by detailing the dispositions, knowledge, and skills professional teachers must learn and be able to demonstrate to thrive in twenty-first-century schools. This book will therefore be helpful for English language teacher educators, school administrators, management teams, and policymakers. Needless to say, the book also seeks to empower current and future teachers, because we believe that every teacher ought to be a professional.