M12 Peak Analysis

The M12 Δ¹⁴C data for the sequoia are presented and compared with results of Miyake et al. (Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012) in Figure 1, while Figure 2 shows six published datasets related to M12 plus results from the present work. Since the Northern Hemisphere (NH) growing season is generally from April to September, the appearance time of M12 in NH datasets is recorded here as AD 775.5 and if a Southern Hemisphere (SH) tree ring showing M12 grew from October AD 774 to April AD 775, the appearance time of M12 is recorded as AD 775.0 (Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015).

Figure 1 Δ¹⁴C (‰) between AD 721 and 820 in tree rings from sequoia in Sequoia National Park, California, USA, compared to Δ¹⁴C in Japanese cedar (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012). The California data include numerous duplicates prepared from the same rings: the A–E designations indicate the time order of treatment and measurement for different batches.

Figure 2 Δ¹⁴C in Siberia (Larch, Jull et al. 2014), California, USA (bristlecone pine, Jull et al. Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014), Japan (cedar, Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012), Germany (oak, Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013), New Zealand (kauri, Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015), Poland (Quercus, Rakowski et al. Reference Rakowski, Krapiec, Huels, Pawlyta, Dreves and Meadows2015) plus average values for California sequoia from this study.

The M12s in five NH datasets appear in AD 775.5, but Siberian larch from 67°31′N (Jull et al. Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014) shows a rise of about 6‰ (< two standard deviations) one year early in AD 774.5, with additional increase of 9‰ in AD 775.5 and 2‰ in AD 776.5. The kauri dataset from New Zealand shows M12 appearing 6 months later than in the NH (Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015), consistent with differences in the NH and SH growing seasons.

For a more detailed comparison (Table 1) we define baseline and intensity values for M12. The baseline is defined as the 4-yr Δ¹⁴C average for AD 770.5–773.5 in the NH (the AD 774.5 point is not used, due to the possible early Δ¹⁴C rise in AD 774.5 in the Siberian record) and that for AD 771.0–774.0 in SH. The NH intensity value is defined as the 5-yr average for AD 776.5–780.5, (the AD 775.5 point is not used since some records show Δ¹⁴C still rising in AD 775.5) and the average for AD 777.0–781.0 is used for the SH intensity value. The baseline and intensity values in the present work are higher by 2.7±1.4‰ and 3.1±1.2‰ than those of Miyake et al. (Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012) respectively, similar to most of the other NH data: whether this represents a real geographic difference or simply an interlaboratory offset is presently unknown. The baseline and intensity values from New Zealand are ~6‰ lower than the European and U.S. data, consistent with measured NH-SH offsets over the last two millennia (Hogg et al. Reference Hogg, Hua, Blackwell, Mu, Buck, Guilderson, Heaton, Palmer, Reimer, Reimer, Turney and Zimmerman2013; Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Bard, Bayliss, Beck, Blackwell, Bronk Ramsey, Buck, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Haflidason, Hajdas, Hatte, Heaton, Hoffman, Hogg, Hughen, Kaiser, Kromer, Manning, Niu, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Staff, Turney and van der Plicht2013). Given the uncertainties for the M12 heights, the magnitude of the M12 spike is essentially identical for six of the seven records, and although the M12 height for the bristlecone pine record is low, it is nevertheless within two standard deviations of the mean of the other six datasets.

Table 1 Baseline and intensity M12 Δ¹⁴C values plus heights (=intensity-baseline) for datasets shown in Figure 2 (see text for details).

* Average of data from two laboratories (Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013)

The early (774 AD) rise in the Siberian and Altai ∆¹⁴C data is difficult to reconcile with ¹⁴C results from the 1960s, when high-yield Soviet atmospheric nuclear tests in Novaya Zemlya (~74°N) in September–November 1961 and again in the latter half of 1962 produced very high burdens of excess ¹⁴C in the NH stratosphere (Feely et al. 1966). After each major injection, measurements of atmospheric ¹⁴CO₂ in air samples from NH ground stations (Nydal and Lovseth Reference Nydal and Lӧvseth1983; Levin et al. Reference Levin, Kromer, Schoch-Fischer, Bruns, Münnich, Berdau, Vogel and Münnich1985) showed a sharp rise beginning in the early spring of the following year and continuing through the entire NH growing season. By 1963 when the largest ¹⁴C increases were observed, a large network of sampling stations extending from 78°N to 9°N was in place (Nydal and Lovseth Reference Nydal and Lӧvseth1983) and recorded an essentially synchronous ∆¹⁴C rise for all stations. Since no anomalous early high-latitude tropospheric ¹⁴CO₂ signal in a bomb peak was observed, it seems unlikely that any of the mechanisms put forward to explain the M12 peak from a high latitude like Siberia’s could generate an equivalent early ¹⁴C spike in biomass. Hence, confirmations are required from measurements at other high-latitude sites.

As Figure 2 shows, the M12 peak is delayed in New Zealand kauri, but the delay is consistent with the differences in timing of the NH and SH growing seasons. Furthermore, whereas the maximum SH tropospheric ¹⁴C increase during the bomb spike was just 70% of mid-latitude NH values (Manning et al. Reference Manning, Lowe, Melhuish, Sparks, Wallace, Brenninkmeijer and McGill1990), reflecting the fact that close to 100% of the input was generated within the NH, the M12 amplitude in the kauri is ~90% of the mean of the NH stations (Table 1), indicating that significant ¹⁴C production occurred in both hemispheres.

Large-scale stratospheric air transport is dominated by the so-called Brewer-Dobson circulation (Butchart Reference Butchart2014) characterized by injection of tropospheric air into the stratosphere in the tropics and subsequently by movement towards the winter pole and subsidence at high latitudes, driven primarily by seasonally varying large-scale eddy motions that act to reduce the mean zonal velocity of air parcels and thus induce a poleward drift (Holton et al. Reference Holton, Haynes, McIntyre, Douglass, Rood and Pfister1995). Descending air in the winter polar vortex carrying a high burden of stratospheric tracers is released near the tropopause when the vortex breaks up in the spring, and extratropical injection of stratospheric air into the troposphere peaks in mid-to-late summer (Stohl et al. Reference Stohl, Bonasoni and Cristofanelli2003). Hence in both hemispheres, tropospheric ¹⁴CO₂ concentrations in the years following the bomb spike showed seasonal cycles, with ∆¹⁴C increasing through the spring and summer and reaching a maximum near the end of the growing season (Nydal and Lovseth Reference Nydal and Lӧvseth1983; Levin et al. Reference Levin, Kromer, Schoch-Fischer, Bruns, Münnich, Berdau, Vogel and Münnich1985; Manning et al. Reference Manning, Lowe, Melhuish, Sparks, Wallace, Brenninkmeijer and McGill1990).

The M12 radiocarbon (¹⁴C) was produced simultaneously in both hemispheres according to globally measured data and the events occurred in both hemispheres are undoubtedly confirmed by ¹⁰Be data from Greenland and Antarctic ice cores (Sigl et al. Reference Sigl, Winstrup and McConnell2015). Based on this situation, we infer that this occurred in the early months of 775 AD, at the end of the northern winter. The timing was early enough (and sufficient production was generated low in the stratosphere) that the NH stations received high-¹⁴C air when cross-tropopause exchange occurred in the NH spring and summer of 775 AD, and hence the signal was recorded in NH wood produced in mid-year. However, the event took place in the end of SH summer so that little or no ¹⁴C was injected into troposphere in that hemisphere during the 774/775 AD austral growing season, and the signal only appeared in the New Zealand kauri in the 775/776 AD ring, almost a year after the production event.

The 660 BC Peak and Solar Activity

Figure 3 shows Δ¹⁴C data covering the period from 550 to 750 BC including single year European oak results from this study. A sharp peak with a rise time of 3–4 yr and amplitude of 10‰ is present at 660 BC. Although the rise time of the 660 BC peak is longer than that of M12 and the height of the peak is lower, the peaks in several of the M12 records actually take 2 yr to reach their maximum value (Figure 2), and we suggest that the two peaks were probably produced by similar processes and more measurement of the 660 BC peak are needed for confirmation.

Figure 3 Single-year Δ¹⁴C data in German oak spanning the 660 BC peak (this work) are shown together with single-year and decadal data from IntCal13 (Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Bard, Bayliss, Beck, Blackwell, Bronk Ramsey, Buck, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Haflidason, Hajdas, Hatte, Heaton, Hoffman, Hogg, Hughen, Kaiser, Kromer, Manning, Niu, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Staff, Turney and van der Plicht2013).

The ∆¹⁴C data in Figure 1 show a decreasing trend (~0.2‰/yr) from 721 to 774 AD and distinct periodic variations of an 11-yr solar cycle [the Schwabe cycle, average variation is a few per mil (‰)] are seen on both sides of the M12 peak (Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015). This suggests that an interval of several decades prior to M12 showed elevated solar activity, characterized by a strong solar cycle and low ¹⁴C production due to enhanced heliomagnetic shielding against galactic cosmic rays. The decadal ∆¹⁴C data from 725 to 675 BC in Figure 3 also show a decreasing trend, suggesting that the 660 BC peak was also preceded by a period of strong solar activity. Any downturn in Δ¹⁴C immediately preceding the single-year AD 994 peak, which Miyake et al. (Reference Miyake, Masuda and Nakamura2013) suggest is also similar to M12, was very small and short-lived at best, but we note that this peak did occur within an interval of generally low ∆¹⁴C. Hence although additional research and data are needed, there is some evidence suggesting that these short-lived Δ¹⁴C peaks are correlated with intervals of strong solar activity, and the simplest explanation is that all three have a common cause.

Solar Proton Events and Coronal Mass Ejections

Why could a relationship between strong solar activity and the Δ¹⁴C peaks exist? Mekhaldi et al. (Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015) have pointed out that the high ³⁶Cl/¹⁰Be ratios for the M12 and AD994 peaks in polar ice are consistent with production by relatively low energy particles (tens to hundreds of MeV) and hence point to SEPs rather than galactic cosmic rays (GeV energies) as the source. SEP events occur more frequently during strong solar activity periods (Kurt et al. Reference Kurt, Belov, Mavromichalaki and Gerontidou2004), and the probability for very intense SEP events increases concurrently. A hypothesized explanation for M12 and similar ∆¹⁴C peaks is that the Earth was irradiated by particles from one or more SEP events involving extremely intense particle fluxes, preferably characterized by unusually harder energy spectra than those of most SEP events. The lower energy SEP component is deflected by Earth’s magnetic field and cannot interact with the atmosphere except at the poles, but the high energy tail of the energy spectrum may have contained a sufficiently high fluence of protons to generate the observed burden of cosmogenic isotopes. Recently, superflares from Sun-like stars were observed with a thousand times the energy release of the largest flares on our Sun, although the life stage at which Sun-like stars make superflares and differences between the Sun and Sun-like stars are still under debate (Maehara et al. Reference Maehara, Shibayama, Notsu, Notsu, Nagao, Kusaba, Honda, Nogami and Shibata2012, Reference Maehara, Shibayama, Notsu, Notsu, Honda, Nogami and Shibata2015).

This is a popular theory (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012; Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013; Jull et al. Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014; Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015) but a potential problem is that it requires a SEP fluence at least five times larger than for any event recorded in the era of ground-based or satellite observations (Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015). Therefore, we consider the fact that large SEP events are often also associated with large geomagnetic storms (Li et al. Reference Li, Temerin, Tsurutani and Alex2006), which can have the effect of enlarging the area of the atmosphere that is irradiated by solar energetic particles (Leske et al. Reference Leske, Mewaldt, Stone and Rosenvinge2001).

Here we suggest a possible solution to this difficulty, based on the association of SEPs with coronal mass ejection events (CMEs). A CME occurs when magnetic disturbances on the Sun lead to the violent ejection of a large volume of plasma into interplanetary space, in the form of an expanding thick shell that can extend over angular ranges of 120º or more, anchored at the source region on the Sun. Since the velocities of fast CMEs can reach ~2500–3000 km/s, far greater than the ~350–750 km/s speed of the solar wind, a shockwave forms in front of the CME and the shocked solar wind plasma and the CME itself both contain embedded magnetic fields that interact and reconnect with the geomagnetic field. Fast CMEs are almost always accompanied by solar flares, but typically most of the associated SEPs are not from the flare itself, but are solar wind and suprathermal ions (mainly protons) and electrons accelerated to tens to thousands of MeV by the expanding CME shockwave (Gosling Reference Gosling1993; Reames Reference Reames1999). Since protons at these energies outrun the shock, SEP arrival at the Earth typically begins 1–2 days prior to the interaction of the shockwave and the CME with the geomagnetic field. In the largest events a reservoir forms in the inner heliosphere (Reames et al. Reference Reames, Kahler and Ng1997) and elevated particle fluxes may persist for a week or more.

The fastest CMEs can reach Earth in a day or less and if the flare site is located near the central meridian the geomagnetic storm can often commence while SEP intensities are near their maximum. Examples include the August 4, 1972, and July 14, 2000, events, among the largest of the space era. In addition, Gopalswamy et al. (Reference Gopalswamy, Yashiro, Krucker, Stenborg and Howard2004) and Li et al. (Reference Li, Moore, Mewaldt, Zhao and Labrador2012) have shown that many CMEs involving especially high fluences of SEPs are twin events where a second CME erupts within 24 hours of the first. The ¹⁴C production from the two events would add nearly linearly (Melott et al. Reference Melott and Thomas2012). Additionally the passage of the initial shockwave leaves a region in its wake that for several hours contains high densities of suprathermal particles and elevated levels of solar wind turbulence. If a second shock arrives before the suprathermal decay, it had been suggested that particles are apparently accelerated with greater efficiency, producing a hard SEP flux that will generate unusually large numbers of secondary neutrons and correspondingly high levels of ¹⁴C. Gopalswamy et al. (Reference Gopalswamy, Yashiro, Krucker, Stenborg and Howard2004) find that the second of these two events is typically more intense by a median value of ~7. Furthermore, if the first CME and/or the shocked plasma in front of it contain strong embedded southward-pointing magnetic fields, these southward fields reconnect with the north-directed fields on the front side of the magnetosphere, releasing a large amount of energy. The resulting magnetic storm acts to reduce the geomagnetic field, so that when SEPs accelerated by the second shock reach the neighborhood of the Earth, they may encounter greatly reduced geomagnetic cutoffs and hence can reach an abnormally large fraction of the atmosphere (Leske et al. Reference Leske, Mewaldt, Stone and Rosenvinge2001; Kress et al. Reference Kress, Mertens and Wiltberger2010).

To our knowledge, this hypothesis of a synergy between unusually intense and high energy SEPs and reduced geomagnetic shielding has not been considered in the derivation of particle fluences required to explain the M12 peak, but elements of it are certainly consistent with CME and SEP observations. Twin CMEs occur relatively frequently (Li et al. Reference Li, Moore, Mewaldt, Zhao and Labrador2012; Ding et al. Reference Ding, Jiang, Zhao and Li2013) and multiple large events within a few days (often from the same active region) are common. Gopalswamy et al. (Reference Gopalswamy, Yashiro, Krucker, Stenborg and Howard2004) reported that most of the large SEP events originating from CME-driven shock acceleration in 1997 to early 2002 were preceded by an earlier CME-driven shock event originating from the same solar active region within 24 hours earlier. For example, 80 CMEs, numerous intense flares, and five large SEP events occurred over a three-week period in October–November 2003, the four largest from a single, very active region on the Sun (Gopalswamy et al. Reference Gopalswamy, Yashiro, Michalek, Xie, Lepping and Howard2005; Mewaldt et al. Reference Mewaldt, Cohen, Labrador, Leske, Mason, Desai, Looper, Mazur, Selesnick and Haggerty2005). Furthermore, over several periods of some hours within this sequence, the geomagnetic cutoff latitude for 19–27 MeV protons was reduced from 65° to 50–55° (Kress et al. Reference Kress, Mertens and Wiltberger2010), corresponding approximately to doubling of the fraction of the atmosphere exposed to those particles. The Carrington Event of 1859 involved major magnetic storms on August 28–29 and September 2–3, with auroras visible at geomagnetic latitudes as low as 25° and 18°, respectively (Green and Boardsen Reference Green and Boardsen2006), suggesting that two closely spaced CMEs interacted strongly with the geomagnetic field. As noted by Jull et al. (Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014), there is no evidence for this event in the annual ¹⁴C record, which at first sight appears to challenge the hypothesis outlined above, but we have no information on the intensity, spectrum, and duration of the SEP event and the conditions for efficient particle acceleration leading to a very hard energy spectrum may not have been met (Li et al. Reference Li, Temerin, Tsurutani and Alex2006).