The Promise of Kauthar

The word kauthar appears only once in the Qur’an: “Indeed, We have given you [kauthar] abundance. So, pray to your Lord, and sacrifice [the sacrificial camel]. Indeed, it is your enemy who is [abtar] without posterity” (Q 108). Shi‘a interpret kauthar as Fatima, the promised divine gift to the Prophet, restoring his hope for a lineage that would survive through his female heir. Both al-Tabari and al-Tabatabai state that when the Prophet lost his third son, ‘Aas bin Wa’el mocked him by calling him abtar. In Meccan society, abtar, meaning amputee or defective, was a derogatory term hurled at men who did not bear sons. The Arabs looked upon an abtar with disdain because they believed that a man’s lineage and legacy could only survive through male children. Thus, when ‘Aas bin Wa’el called the Prophet abtar, God revealed Kauthar (Q 108) to console him by prophesying the succession of the Prophet’s posterity over his adversaries.Footnote ¹

Kauthar is a derivative of the root word, kathara, which means abundance.Footnote ² After citing nearly fifty narrations, al-Tabari concludes that the ta’wil (interpretation) of kauthar is a river in Paradise that God has promised to the Prophet.Footnote ³ Al-Tabatabai expands the meaning of kauthar as abundance granted to the Prophet to include his virtues, his progeny, his companions, the scholars among his followers, the stream in heaven, and more. Deploying his interpretive approach of utilizing the Qur’an to interpret the Qur’an, al-Tabatabai asserts that the word relation between kauthar and abtar is crucial to a holistic understanding of the verse.

Abtar is what the Arabs called a childless person; thus, it follows that God’s reassurance to His Prophet must be in the form of glad tidings of abundant lineage. Two factors inform al-Tabatabai’s preference: First, it is the closest in coherence with the last verse of the chapter, “Indeed, it is your enemy who is [abtar] without posterity,” and second, without such an understanding, the grandeur of the Divine tidings of “Indeed We grant you (Inna a‘taynaka)” would not bear weight. Al-Tabatabai concludes that kauthar is Fatima, the sole surviving child of the Prophet, because his lineage continued through her.Footnote ⁴

Although both exegetes use the word ‘ta’wil’ for their respective interpretations, their opposing conclusions may indicate a historical and sectarian reality. Al-Tabari’s obscuring of “abundance of lineage” as a possible interpretation of kauthar may be his way of evading the Shi‘i doctrine that Imamate is vested in the Prophet’s progeny. Al-Tabatabai’s deduction may be indicative of the Shi‘a veneration of Fatima, not solely for being the daughter of the Prophet but for also for being the wife of Ali ibn Abi Talib (the first Imam of the Twelver Shi‘i s) and the mother of the consecutive eleven Imams.

Interpreting kauthar as Fatima elevates her status in the Qur’an and facilitates the reading of female empowerment within the traditional Qur’anic exegesis. If Fatima is the promised kauthar, then the fact that her birth was celebrated instead of being shunned demonstrates the emergence of a cultural paradigm shift, one that privileges the right of a female infant to live and the inclusion and validation of matrilineal posterity. The words and actions of the Prophet demonstrated that shift.

Despite living in a society that detested daughters, the Prophet displayed immense love and respect for Fatima, much to the people’s amazement. He would rise from his place whenever she visited him, kiss her hands, and offer her his seat.Footnote ⁵ He proclaimed, “Fatimah is a part of me; whoever pleases her, pleases me and whoever hurts her, hurts me.”Footnote ⁶ Such public regard for a female was rare, even contrary to societal norms of the time. While constituting religious grounds for honoring women in general, the Prophet’s conduct with Fatima raises a theological question about her status. Was this a demonstration of a father’s love for his daughter or proof of Fatima’s unique, theologically revered position? According to the Qur’an, the Prophet’s words and actions are God’s decree, and obedience to the Prophet is a sign of loving God.Footnote ⁷ The Prophet’s reverence for Fatima was more than a father’s love for their child. It was ordained by God, thus attributing a sacred aspect to her.

Another radical impact of Fatima’s existence was that it antagonized the prevalent notion that a person’s lineage would continue solely through a surviving male heir. The Prophet disrupted that notion by declaring that Fatima’s children were his own. Consequently, her children and grandchildren continued to trace their lineage back to the Prophet through their mother, alarming the pre-Islamic Meccan society and agitating the caliphal authorities for decades after the proclamation of Islam.

Once, the Abbasid caliph Harun questioned Imam al-Kazim (the fifth descendant of Fatima) about the laity referring to him as the son of the Prophet when the latter had no surviving male heir. Harun claimed that the Imam was wrong in ascribing his lineage to the Prophet and that he should instead call himself a descendant of Ali (Fatima’s husband). Imam al-Kazim quoted Qur’anic verses emphasizing God’s reference to Jesus as a descendant of Abraham even though he was born as a miracle to the virgin Mary without a father.Footnote ⁸ In the same way, he argued Fatima’s children were, in fact, the Prophet’s descendants.Footnote ⁹

Fatima’s birth and upbringing were the beginning of a significant, albeit unwelcomed, momentum for change in seventh-century Arabian society. She grew up to be a prolific theologian who championed the cause of women in the social and political arena.

Among the Abrār

Stemming from the root word barr, meaning “wide and expansive,” abrār refers to pious and charitable individuals who act sincerely for God and facilitate widespread goodness.Footnote ¹⁰ Al-Tabatabai elaborates that birr signifies an action of selfless piety such that the doer does not intend for the rewards to return solely to herself. She chooses to execute birr because it is a beautiful deed, even when its performance is difficult and uncomfortable.Footnote ¹¹ One of the descriptions of the abrār in the Qur’an is as follows:

An analysis of the historical context (asbāb al-nuzūl) of the above verse demonstrates Fatima’s piety and selfless conduct, including her among the abrār in the Qur’an.

Drawing on several traditions, al-Tabari characterizes the abrār as a group of people who obey God, refrain from acts of disobedience, and feed the poor, the orphans, and the displaced captives. Without delving into the asbāb al-nuzūl of these verses, he concludes that abrār refers to a broad and general category of pious and practicing Muslims from the time of revelation and beyond.Footnote ¹² Al-Tabatabai elaborates that abrār is a group of devout individuals who believe in God, the Prophet, and the Day of Judgment. They are committed to selfless servitude wanting only what their Lord desires. They act solely for His pleasure, prioritizing His will over their own and practicing patience to quell their wants out of love for His obedience. Their actions are motivated by sincerity, love, and submission to their Lord. Deploying his exegetical method of seeking an explanation of the Qur’an from within the Qur’an, al-Tabatabai provides two verses as evidence for his interpretation of the word abrār. The first verse states:

This verse highlights key characteristics of the abrār as interpreted by al-Tabatabai: belief in God, the prophets, the Day of Judgment, and pious and charitable conduct. He presents another set of verses which state, “No indeed! The record of the pious is in ‘Illiyyīn [highest]. And what will show you what is ‘Illiyyūn? It is a written record, witnessed by those brought near [to Allah]” (Q 83:18–21). Commenting on these verses, he includes a tradition attributed to Imam al-Sadiq,Footnote ¹³ which states, “Allah, the High and Mighty created us [the progeny of the Prophet] from the highest of the highest [a‘lā al-‘Illiyyīn] and created the hearts and bodies of our followers from the stuff of our creation. Therefore, their hearts always turn to us for we are all from the same source, and then he recited Q 83:18–21.”Footnote ¹⁴ This tradition, in all probability, references Fatima’s mystical presence among the ‘Illiyyin (in the highest stations) before the world’s creation. Later in this chapter, we will discuss more mystical references to Fatima.

After discussing the linguistic and the Qur’anic interpretations of abrār, al-Tabatabai provides the historical context (asbāb al-nuzūl) for the revelation of Q 76. Narrating Ibn Abbas, he states that when his grandsons Hasan and Hussain were taken ill, the Prophet suggested that Fatima and Ali make a covenant with God to fast for three consecutive days as a supplication for their children’s health.Footnote ¹⁵ Soon after, the children regained their health, and Fatima and Ali decided to fulfill their vow of fasting for three days. Some traditions narrate that their helper Fiḍḍa and the children also chose to fast.Footnote ¹⁶

At nightfall on the first day of fasting, Fatima spread out five loaves of bread, salt, and water for iftar.Footnote ¹⁷ As the family sat around their modest provisions, a destitute called out, “Peace be on you, O family of Muhammad! I am in need. Feed me so God may feed you from the delicacies of Paradise.” Fatima gave her bread to the beggar. Ali, Fiḍḍa, Hasan, and Hussain quickly followed suit. The beggar delightfully accepted the food, and Fatima and her family gave thanks for the opportunity to be of help. On the second day, an orphan called out to them for food as they sat down for iftar. Again, Fatima and her family gave away their loaves of bread to the orphan. At the end of the third day of fasting, a captive called out for help and once more gave away their food. The following day the Prophet visited Fatima and found her in a state of prostration while the signs of starvation were evident on her face. The Prophet applauded his family’s selfless charity. Still, he could not help feeling saddened by their physical state of deprivation until the angel Gabriel descended with glad tidings. Gabriel announced that God had acknowledged their fulfilling their vow, feeding the needy, the orphan, and the captive out of love for Him and His creation and honored their pious and charitable conduct by documenting them in the verses of Q 76.Footnote ¹⁸

Mahmud al-AlusiFootnote ¹⁹ narrates a similar asbāb al-nuzūl for the revelation of Q 76 and argues that the entire chapter (Q 76) pays homage to Fatima’s charitable actions. Besides announcing Fatima as a member of the abrār, al-Alusi points to another peculiar aspect of Q 76; even though this chapter provides one of the most vivid descriptions of Paradise, there is no mention of ḥūr (the beautiful and promised females of heaven). Instead, the verses of this chapter talk about the handsome young men that resemble scattered pearls as they tend to the dwellers of heaven, “They will be waited upon by immortal youths, whom, when you see them, you will suppose them to be scattered pearls” (Q 76:19). Al-Alusi suggests that this could be attributed to the profound reverence accorded to her as a woman and as the esteemed daughter of the Prophet.Footnote ²⁰

In his Shawahid al-Tanzil li Qawa’id al-Tafdhil, Hakim al-HaskaniFootnote ²¹ lists more than 200 references to the family of the Prophet in the Qur’an. As for the revelation of Q 76, al-Haskani posits that these verses were revealed in honor of Fatima’s charitable actions, identifying her and her family as the abrār.Footnote ²² Thus, the Qur’an portrays abrār as a group of individuals who possess unparalleled faith and exhibit exemplary behavior, thereby securing the most exalted positions in the hereafter owing to their contributions to humanity. While the category of abrār may encompass all devout Muslims, the specific reference in this context pertains to the acts of piety and charity performed by Fatima. The aforementioned verses not only highlight Fatima’s elevated status among the abrār but also underscore the possibility of eliciting narratives of female piety through a more profound interpretation of the Qur’an’s verses, particularly one grounded in allegory.

The “Verse of Light”

The most common theme in the Qur’an is the description of the transcendent nature of God without associating any imagery with the Divine.Footnote ²³ Pure monotheistic belief in the singularity of God (tawḥīd) is to deny all likeness to Him; “The originator of the heavens and the earth, He made for you mates from your own selves, and mates of the cattle, by which means He multiplies you. Nothing is like Him, [nothing is like His likeness], and He is the All-hearing, the All-seeing” (Q 42:11). While this verse denies any likeness (mathal) to God, Q 24:35, popularly known as the “verse of light,” begins by describing the likeness of God’s Light (mathalu nurihi). It states,

According to this verse, the metaphor of God’s Light is a lamp placed in a niche. The lamp is in a glass that shines like a star. Its fuel is the oil of the blessed olive tree which is neither from the east nor the west. While the oil lights the lamp, the fire does not burn it. It emanates light upon light. The critical elements of this metaphor are the niche (mishqat), the lamp (miṣbaḥ), the glass (zujāja), and the oil (zayt). Together, they appear as a shining star emanating layers of light (nūrun ‘ala nur). Muslim mystics, philosophers, and exegetes have interpreted this metaphor differently. Shi‘i allegorical traditions draw on the “verse of light” to describe Fatima’s essential contribution to propagating and establishing divine guidance.

For Ibn Arabi, this verse exhibits a transcendent unity essential to vision and perception “since, without light, [the] vision would perceive nothing at all.”Footnote ²⁴ According to William Chittick, this verse manifests unity within diversity. Different colors emanate from one colorless light. Even though light has no color of its own, no color would exist without light.Footnote ²⁵ In the words of Mujtaba Musavi Lari, this verse demonstrates how God uses allegory to describe the indescribable so that “the intricate secrets and mysteries [of the object] may become better known.”Footnote ²⁶

Al-Tabari states that the niche is the heart of a believer, and the lamp and the glass represent faith and the Qur’an. Although he does not provide any specific meanings for the oil, he states that it generally refers to a believer’s steadfast conviction and pious conduct.Footnote ²⁷ Similarly, al-Tabatabai also suggests that the niche is the chest cavity of the believer, and the lamp is the light of guidance. The glass is her (the believer’s) heart, and the oil is the knowledge that is neither eastern nor western but rather from the blessed tree of prophets who brought divine wisdom. When the believer acts with conviction on the divine command, her character shines bright like a star, and her conduct produces layers upon layers (nūrun ‘ala nur) of good deeds, acts of worship, and righteousness.Footnote ²⁸

Al-Tabatabai then delves deeper into the allegorical interpretations of this Qur’anic metaphor, like the one from Imam al-Sadiq stating that the niche is Fatima, the lamp is Hasan, the glass is Hussain, and the oil represents Abraham, the great ancestor of Prophet Muhammad (S).Footnote ²⁹ This interpretation highlights the historical role of the Prophet and his family in propagating and sustaining divine guidance. It was in the house of Fatima where the Prophet found spiritual and physical comfort and a repository for his tradition. Through Fatima’s sons Hasan and Hussain, the bloodline and the legacy of the Prophet’s teachings endured. Together, they sustained the works and wisdom of the divine prophets in the progeny of Abraham, who was neither Christian nor Jewish.Footnote ³⁰ Fatima and her family assisted the Prophet at every stage of his mission. After him, the Imams in her lineage proved to be guardians of his values, sometimes sacrificing their lives like Hussain in Karbala and establishing schools of jurisprudence like Imam al-Sadiq. Hence, according to al-Tabatabai, the layers of light upon light (nūrun ‘ala nur) refer to the twelve Holy Imams in Fatima’s progeny.

Ali ibn Ibrahim Qummi and Makarim Shirazi offer similar allegorical interpretations of the “verse of light.” Qummi quotes a fifth-century Muslim exegete that Imam al-Sadiq would interpret the niche in the “verse of light” as Fatima.Footnote ³¹ Similarly, Shirazi builds on hadith that interpret the lamp as the Prophet’s heart upon which the light of the Qur’an descended.Footnote ³² The glass surrounding the lamp refers to Ali, who supported and protected the Prophet in his mission during the early days of propagation in Mecca and when Muslims were politically established in Medina. Light upon light refers to the Imams in Fatima’s progeny. Together, they represent the Qur’anic metaphor of “the blessed tree.”Footnote ³³ This interpretation highlights the virtues of Fatima and brings to the fore the foundational role that women play in establishing divine thought and propagating divine guidance.

The “Verse of Purity”

The concept of purity is a recurring theme in the Qur’an as it relates to the faith, thoughts, deeds, and actions of Muslims. It is also a primary component of jurisprudential aspects of the diet, clothing, relationships, and acts of worship. For example, while preparing for their daily ritual prayer, Muslims are especially attentive to physical cleanliness and sincerity of intentions. Purity in the sense of faultlessness or immaculateness emerges from Q 33:33, commonly referred to as the ‘verse of purity’ (aya al-tathīr), which states, “Indeed, Allah desires to repel all impurity from you, O Ahl al-Bayt [People of the Household] and purify you with a thorough purification.” A discourse on the asbāb al-nuzūl of this verse informs Fatima’s axial position among the divinely purified Ahl al-Bayt.

In the Shi‘i tradition, the Ahl al-Bayt plays a significant role as a primary source in understanding and validating hadith. Having been divinely guarded against every imaginable impurity, this elite group would best serve as a beacon of the purest form of faith, conduct, and righteousness. While exegetes differ in how they identify the “Ahl al-Bayt” (people of the household) in this verse, Shi‘i exegetes concur that this group comprises Fatima, her father, her husband, and her children, including the eleven Imams in her lineage.

Although al-Tabari endorses the popular Shi‘i interpretation, he also suggests that Prophet’s wives are included among the Ahl al-Bayt. Alluding to this debate among exegetes, al-Tabari quotes that when Abi Ammar came across a group of companions who were reviling and cursing Ali, he interjected, saying, “Shall I inform you of the one you are cursing? I sat with the Prophet when Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Hussain entered. The Prophet welcomed them, cast his cloak over them, and said, ‘O Allah! These are my Ahl al-Bayt. Repel from them every impurity and purify them in a thorough purification.’”Footnote ³⁴

Al-Tabari narrates another tradition from Umm Salama, the Prophet’s wife, that when the “verse of purity” was revealed, the Prophet called for Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Hussain cast his cloak over them and said, “O Allah! These are my Ahl al-Bayt. Repel from them every impurity and purify them in a thorough purification.”Footnote ³⁵ Enumerating similar traditions, al-Tabari presents substantial evidence that “the household” in this verse refers to the Prophet, Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Hussain.

He also includes traditions that state that for many months (some traditions say six months, others say seven months) following the revelation of this verse, the Prophet would come to Fatima’s door at every prayer time saying, “The prayer, the prayer, ‘Indeed, Allah desires to repel all impurity from you, O People of the Household, and purify you with a thorough purification.’”Footnote ³⁶ Along with traditions that identify the Ahl al-Bayt as the five individuals mentioned earlier, al-Tabari also includes two traditions that state that this verse was revealed specifically for the wives of the Prophet.Footnote ³⁷

Al-Tabatabai endorses the narration of Umm Salama as quoted by al-Tabari.Footnote ³⁸ However, he refutes the view that the Ahl al-Bayt in this verse includes the Prophet’s wives drawing on the grammatical use of “ankum” (from you) in “Allah desires to repel all impurity from you [‘ankum], O People of the Household….” Kum (you) is used to address a group of males only or majority males. In contrast, kunna refers to a group comprising solely of females. The beginning of Q 33:33 and the preceding verses use kunna because they specifically address the Prophet’s wives (a group of females).Footnote ³⁹ However, in the middle of Q 33:33, the form changes to kum, suggesting that the addressee group has changed from comprising females only to females and males. So grammatically, al-Tabatabai argues the Ahl al-Bayt in this verse cannot be a group of females only; hence, the interpretation that the “verse of purity” was meant for the Prophet’s wives is erroneous.

Shirazi also supports the view that the Ahl al-Bayt, recipients of divine “thorough purification,” refers to the five individuals mentioned by al-Tabari and al-Tabatabai. He affirms their rendition of Umm Salama’s narration and that the Prophet recited the “verse of purity” at Fatima’s door at every prayer time for several months. He then adds a detailed narration that one day the Prophet visited Fatima complaining of fatigue. She covered him in a Yemeni cloak. Soon after, the Prophet gathered her, Ali, Hasan, and Hussain under his cloak and prayed for them. Subsequently, Gabriel descended with the “verse of purity.”Footnote ⁴⁰ This event, also known as hadith al-Kisa (the Event of the Cloak), holds an exalted position in the Shi‘i tradition and is recited at the beginning of most Shi‘i gatherings to seek blessings for the attendees.

In his article “Hadith al-Kisa: The Narration of the Cloak,” Gholam Hussein Masoud states that when the Prophet had gathered Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Hussain with him under the cloak, a light emanated from them that reached the skies. Gabriel witnessed this and asked God about the ones under the cloak. God replied, “They are Fatima, her father, her husband, and her sons.”Footnote ⁴¹ This style of introduction pivots Fatima as an axis for the group and privileges relationship to her as a reference for all other members. It awards centrality to a woman who was unusual in the patriarchal norms of the seventh-century Arabian society. The inclusion of Fatima in the asbāb al-nuzūl of the “verse of purity” makes her an inspirational model to argue for equal access to spiritual purity by women, men, and children.

The “Verse of Mubāhala”

After the Muslims victoriously returned to Mecca in the eighth year after hijra, neighboring tribes and nations became increasingly interested in Islam. They visited the Prophet to learn more about his message and his role as leader of the newly founded state. The Qur’an speaks of a Christian delegation from the central Arabian region of Najran who visited the Prophet and the Muslim–Christian dialogue that followed (Q 3:59–79). The theological status of Jesus was the focus of their conversation. The Muslims insisted that he was a revered prophet of God who was miraculously born to the Virgin Mary and given a heavenly scripture, while the Christians insisted that he was the son of God. After deliberating on the topic for several days, the dialogue had changed into a deadlocked debate and consequently concluded in a peculiar contest known as mubāhala (imprecation). The “verse of mubāhala” states, “Should anyone argue with you [Prophet] concerning him [Jesus], after the knowledge that has come to you, say, ‘Come! Let us call our sons and your sons, our women, and your women, ourselves and yourselves, then let us pray earnestly and call down Allah’s curse upon the liars’” (Q 3:61). A historical and exegetical analysis of this verse affirms Fatima’s participation in this contest and the Prophet’s confidence in her truthfulness.

Mubāhala is from bahala, meaning “to set free;” when an animal is let loose, it is called bāhil. In the context of supplication, ibtahala means to pray earnestly and free from every worldly attachment. Mubāhala is a supplication to detach the untrue party from the protection and mercy of God.Footnote ⁴² In the verse mentioned earlier, it refers to breaking the tie of contradicting views about Jesus through a contest that would invoke God’s wrath on the false claimants. With the Christians adamant in their assertion of Jesus being the son of God and the Prophet’s insistence that Jesus was a pious servant and messenger of God, the mubāhala served as a divinely decreed tiebreaker.

Al-Tabari and al-Tabatabai concur on the asbāb al-nuzūl of this verse. Al-Tabari states that on the eve of the mubāhala, the Christian delegation spent the night deliberating their responses to the following day’s proceedings. If Muhammad (S) were a true prophet of God, then God would not descend His wrath upon him, and if he were an angel asking them to confront the truth, they would not stand a chance of survival. So, they decided to play it safe and avoid engaging in the mubāhala if the Prophet chose to proceed. On the assigned day, they saw the Prophet arrive with Hussain in his arms and Fatima walking behind him. He asked to begin the mubāhala, and they declined, agreeing to live in peace with the Muslims and pay annual taxes to the Muslim government.Footnote ⁴³ Al-Tabari also quotes that on the day of mubāhala, the Prophet took Hasan and Ali along with Fatima and Hussain.Footnote ⁴⁴

Al-Tabatabai narrates from Imam al-Sadiq that the Prophet received the Christian delegation in the mosque in Medina. He started the conversation by acknowledging that there is no God but God, that he was the Messenger of God, and that Jesus was God’s servant and a pious human being. The Christians asked, “Who was his father?” The Prophet replied with the verses, “Indeed the case of Jesus with Allah is like the case of Adam: He created him from dust, then said to him, ‘Be,’ and he was. This is the truth from your Lord, so do not be among the skeptics” (Q 3:59, 60). Then he asked, “What do you say about Adam? Was he not a servant of God and a pious human being?” When they responded in the affirmative, the Prophet asked, “Then who was his [Adam’s] father?” The Christian delegation remained silent.

After several days of dialogue and debate, the Prophet shared that Gabriel had descended with the “verse of mubāhala.” With both parties being as convinced of their positions as was the case, a mubāhala could be the only course for a settlement. As they retired for the night, the Christians deliberated, “If he brings common members of his community, then we will engage in mubāhala, but if he brings his closest and dearest family members, then we will refuse. Only a truthful prophet would confidently bring his loved ones to such a grave contest.”Footnote ⁴⁵ The next day the Prophet appeared with one woman, one man, and two boys. The Christians realized that the man was Ali, his cousin, the woman was Fatima, his daughter, and the children were Hasan and Hussain, his grandsons. After consultations amongst themselves, they retracted from the contest and agreed to pay taxes in return for the freedom to practice their religion. The Prophet agreed.Footnote ⁴⁶

The event of mubāhala also appears in the works of the twelfth-century literary scholar and jurist Sayyid Ali bin Musa bin Tawus al-Hilli. Al-Hilli narrates that on the appointed day, the Prophet emerged carrying Hussain in his arms, holding Hasan by the hand, with Fatima walking behind him and Ali walking behind her. The Prophet said to them, “when I raise my hands for supplication, say ‘Amen’.”Footnote ⁴⁷ When the leader of the Christian delegation saw the Prophet and his family approaching, he said, “Indeed, I see such faces that if they were to ask God to move mountains, God would grant their wish. We will not engage in mubāhala.”Footnote ⁴⁸ Their observation alludes to the charismatic and spiritual virtues of the Ahl al-Bayt.

Al-Tabatabai explains that participating in the mubāhala meant subjecting one’s conviction and existence to a divine test. The Prophet’s careful selection of those who would accompany him in such a test demonstrates his confidence and trust in their sincerity. Fatima’s inclusion in this select group is a testimony to her truthfulness.Footnote ⁴⁹ Analyzing the verse grammatically, al-Tabatabai states that all three nouns: sons, women, and selves, are plural, representing groups of three or more individuals. Despite the allowance to include more, the Prophet chose one woman, two sons, and one other man suggesting that those selected were unmatched and exemplary among the Muslims.Footnote ⁵⁰ Fatima’s inclusion in this group renders her a female model of truthfulness. It is also noteworthy that in response to the divine instruction of bringing “our sons” to the mubāhala, the Prophet brought Fatima’s children. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the Prophet’s progeny continued through his daughter’s children in a culture where male children represented continuity of lineage. Invoking the “verse of mubāhala,” each Imam in Fatima’s bloodline justified their title of “ibn Rasulullah” (son of God’s Messenger).

The verses of kauthar (abundance), abrār (pious), nur (light), tathir (purity), and mubāhala (contest of truth) not only provide hues of Fatima’s historical narrative but also demonstrate the Qur’anic perspective on feminine worth, piety, and participation in establishing a moral and just society. While Muslims generally respect Fatima’s position, Shi‘i spiritual literature posits that her human form comprises a more-than-human element that connects to a mystical realm.

Creation from Light

The primordial existence of the Prophet’s light (nur Muhammadi) is not an alien notion in the Sunni tradition. Shi‘i literature, however, elaborates on the mystical existence of the Ahl al-Bayt in much detail. In his commentary on the Nahj al-Balagha, Habibullah al-Khoei explores some of the arcane aspects of Fatima’s mystical creation from the Prophet’s preexistent light (nur Muhammadi). Quoting al-Majlisi’s Bihar, al-Khoei states:

This tradition describes Fatima’s mystical creation from divine light, her preexistence with the nur Muhammadi in a state of glorifying God, and the creation of the heavens and the earth from her light. For the Shi‘a, this tradition is inherently connected to the “verse of light” discussed earlier in this chapter. Some mystical traditions also narrate that Fatima’s primordial existence with the Ahl al-Bayt became the source of all the blessings that descended upon the earth and its dwellers. In his Mikyal al-Makarim, Muhammad Taqi al-Isfahani lists several hadith that speak to this idea. Quoting Imam al-Sadiq, al-Isfahani states that the Prophet said:

Al-Majlisi has compiled many similar traditions describing Fatima’s preexistence in vivid detail.Footnote ⁵⁶

Journey from the Heavens to the Earth

Fatima’s birth date is “a source of polemics between the Shi‘i and the Sunni and a controversial point upon which to begin a study of her life.”Footnote ⁵⁷ Clohessy states that according to Sunni historians, she was born five years before the proclamation of Islam (605 CE). In contrast, Shi‘i historians insist that she was born five years after the first revelation (615 CE).Footnote ⁵⁸ Shi‘i literature includes mystical narratives concerning her conception, speaking from the womb, and the descending of heavenly women to assist with her parturition.

According to Shi‘i reports, Fatima was conceived from a heavenly fruit Gabriel brought for the Prophet. The tenth-century hadith scholar Shaykh al-Sadouq narrates,

After eating the mystical fruit from heaven, the Prophet headed home to Khadija, and Fatima was conceived. In his biographical work on Fatima, Muhammad Taqi Muqaddam quotes a tradition by al-Sadouq that adds a prelude to this narrative. Muqaddam states that God asked the Prophet to worship in solitude for forty days. He decided to spend those days in the house of Fatima bint Asad and sent Ammar Yasir to inform Khadija that his absence from home was in obedience to a divine commandment.Footnote ⁶⁰ He spent forty consecutive days fasting and the nights in prayer. On the last night, Gabriel descended with fruit from heaven. The Prophet ate the fruit and prepared for his prayer. Gabriel then said he should return home to Khadija, for God desired to grant him pure progeny.Footnote ⁶¹ Fatima’s light moved from the heavenly fruit to Khadija’s womb that night.

While Khadija rejoiced at her pregnancy, she also felt socially estranged. Most Meccan women thought it was unbecoming for a woman of Khadija’s stature to marry the orphan Prophet, so they socially ostracized her. Khadija was content with her love for the Prophet and stayed committed to him. When she felt lonely during her pregnancy, the child in her womb would speak to her. Al-Majlisi quotes,

Al-Majlisi also states that heavenly midwives assisted Khadija as Fatima’s birth drew near.

In another version of this hadith, al-Majlisi names the four heavenly women as Sara, Asiya, Maryam, and Kulthum, the sister of Moses.Footnote ⁶⁴ In his Dhakha’ir al-‘Uqba, the thirteenth-century historian Muhib al-Din Ahmad al-Tabari narrates a similar except that it names the four women as Hawwa [Eve], Asiya, Kulthum, and Maryam.Footnote ⁶⁵ Some narrations also mention that Fatima testified to the tenets of faith as soon as she was born. Al-Majlisi’s version continues to provide more details as follows:

Narrations of Fatima’s creation from a heavenly fruit, her speaking in the womb and at birth, and the descending of midwives from Paradise are consistent features of Shi‘i biographical works on her life.

Fatima’s Appellations

Besides the supernatural circumstances surrounding her birth, there is significant literature on Fatima’s mystical. Muqaddam lists sixteen names and a hundred and thirty-five titles for Fatima. Imam al-Sadiq ascribes nine names to Fatima that highlight her virtuous character; they are Siddīqa (the righteous), Mubāraka (the blessed), Tāhira (the pure), Zakiya (the unblemished); Raḍiya (the one who is pleased with God), Marḍiya (the one whom God is pleased with), Muḥaddatha (the one who is spoken to by angels), Zahra (the luminous), and Batūl (the pure virgin). Here, we look at mystical connotations of her names Fatima, Zahra, and Muḥaddatha.

Fatima is from faṭama, which means “to wean.” It appears with two different prepositions placed after it: faṭama bi and faṭama ‘an, meaning “weaned for” [the sake of] or “wean with” and “weaned [away] from,” respectively. Hadith literature illustrates that God weaned Fatima with knowledge and weaned her away from ignorance.Footnote ⁶⁸ Imam al-RezaFootnote ⁶⁹ states that the Prophet said, “I named my daughter Fatima because God Almighty weaned her and those who love her from the fire.”Footnote ⁷⁰ In another version of this hadith, al-Majlisi states that Imam al-Sadiq said, “Do you know what the interpretation of Fatima is? It is that she is weaned away from every evil.”Footnote ⁷¹

Her appellation “Zahra” appears in Shi‘i literature as a separate and sometimes second name following Fatima. Zahra is from zahara, meaning radiant or luminous, and refers to Fatima’s preexistent light. It emerges from a mystical reading of the “verse of light,” as discussed earlier in this chapter. Imam al-Sadiq narrated that,

In another tradition, al-Majlisi provides vivid details about the spectrum of light that emanated from Fatima, resulting in her being called Zahra. Transmitting from al-Sadouq’s ‘Ilal al-Sharā’i, al-Majlisi states that Imam al-Sadiq explained the meaning of Zahra as follows:

Although the names Fatima and Zahra are the most famous names that appear in Islamic literature, Muḥaddatha is another name that highlights her extraordinary spirituality. Muḥaddatha is the feminine form for the noun muḥaddath, which refers to someone who communicates with angels. In his Manaqib Aal Abi Talib, the twelfth-century Shi‘i theologian and jurist Mohammad bin Shahr Ashub explores the different readings of the verse, “We did not send any apostle before you [Muhammad], but We revealed to him that ‘There is no god except Me; so worship Me’” (Q 21:25). Ibn Abbas and Muhammad bin Abi Bakr would read this verse as, “We did not send any apostle before you nor any messenger nor any muḥaddath.” Ibn Shar Ashub states that revelation is not exclusively for prophets. The Qur’an records conversations of individuals with angels who were not necessarily prophets. Imam al-Sadiq explained, “Maryam was not a prophet; she was a muḥaddatha. The mother of Moses was not a prophet; she was a muḥaddatha. Sara met the angels when they gave her glad tidings of the birth of Isaac and Jacob after him, and she was not a prophet. Fatima was a muḥaddatha, and she was not a prophet.”Footnote ⁷⁴ This narration includes Fatima among the women who conversed with angels.

According to Ibn Shahr Ashub, Fatima spoke to Gabriel, Azrael, and other angels. Imam al-Baqir states,

Similar narrations state that Gabriel and Mikael would come to rock her son’s cradle to keep the child calm while Fatima attended to her duties.Footnote ⁷⁶ While narrating the accounts of the Prophet’s demise, Ibn Shahr Ashub quotes from Ibn Abbas:

Imam al-Sadiq said that Fatima lived for seventy-five days after her father’s death, grieving for him all the time she was alive. Gabriel would visit her often, consoling her with the glad tidings of her father’s lofty position in the next world, and telling her of the events after her death. She narrated these forecasted events to Ali, and he wrote them down.Footnote ⁷⁸ In his al-Kafi, Kulayni states that Ali compiled the conversations of Fatima with Gabriel, which later became known as Musḥaf of Fatima (Fatima’s Scroll).Footnote ⁷⁹ The scroll passed to the Imams in Fatima’s lineage, and they drew upon its contents to develop their knowledge. Imam al-Sadiq said:

In another version of a similar narration, Imam al-Sadiq said, “I was looking at the scroll of Fatima. No king would rule on earth without being listed therein by his name and father’s name.”Footnote ⁸¹ These narrations highlight Fatima’s mystical and spiritual aspects, how they informed the development of Shi‘i thought and theology, and the legacy of knowledge she left behind for the Imams.

Other accolades characterize her as “immaculate” and among the excellent women of the world as described by the Prophet. Shi‘i exegetes build on the “verse of purity” (Q 33:33) to posit that the Ahl al-Bayt are “immaculate.” As discussed earlier in this chapter, Shi‘i commentators identify the Ahl al-Bayt as Fatima, her father, her husband, and her children. The concept of “fourteen immaculate ones” (the Prophet, Fatima, and the twelve Imams) is a significant component of Shi‘i thought. Fatima’s theological significance emerges from hadith such as “Fatima is part of me; whoever hurts her hurts me and whoever hurts me hurts Allah (exalted be His Majesty!),” and “Allah is displeased when she is angered and pleased when she is pleased.”Footnote ⁸² Her spiritual distinctions include invocations and chants (tasbīh) that are popular in daily Shi‘i practice.

The Tasbīh of Fatima

One of the spiritual legacies of Fatima is the glorification of God taught to her by the Prophet. Referred to as the “tasbīh of Fatima,” this chant is essential to the lived piety of Muslims, mainly the Shi‘a, who chant it after their five daily prayers seeking its spiritual benefits. In his biographical work titled Fatima, the Gracious, Abu Muhammad Ordoni states that Fatima lived a modest life and did most of the household chores herself. When the workload increased, she went to her father to seek assistance. He said to her,

This narration exemplifies the spiritual value of the tasbīh and recognizes the importance of daily household chores often designated to women in most Muslim cultures. Shi‘i exegetes explain that Fatima’s tasbīh embodies God’s remembrance. The Qur’an states, “O you who have faith! Remember Allah with frequent remembrance [dhikran kathīra]” (Q 33:41). God-consciousness is aspired to by Muslim mystics and spiritualists. Shi‘i exegetes argue that Fatima’s tasbīh is the key to achieving it. In his Wasa’il al-Shi‘a, Hurr al-Amuli quotes Imam al-Sadiq saying, “The tasbīh of Fatima is one of the interpretations of dhikran kathīra as it appears in God’s words, ‘Remember Allah with frequent remembrance.”’Footnote ⁸⁴

The interpretation that the tasbīh is a distinguished model for the glorification and remembrance of God is also found in the exegesis of the verse, “Remember Me, and I will remember you…” (Q 2:152). Al-Amuli states that according to Imam al-Sadiq, chanting Fatima’s tasbīh constitutes a way of remembering God, as alluded to in Q 2:152.Footnote ⁸⁵ Another narration states that Imam al-Baqir said, “There is no model for the supplicatory worship and praise of God better than the tasbīh of Fatima because if there were a better model, the Prophet would have surely gifted it to Fatima.”Footnote ⁸⁶ The Shi‘i hadith corpus contains several narrations that elaborate on the multitude of spiritual benefits associated with Fatima’s tasbīh. One such narration from Imam al-Sadiq states, “The recitation of tasbīh of Fatima after every obligatory prayer is better than a thousand supererogatory prayers (al-nafila) performed every day.”Footnote ⁸⁷ Another says that “one who recites the tasbīh of Fatima seeking forgiveness will succeed because it is a hundred on the tongue and a thousand on the scales [mīzān]; it pushes back Satan and earns the pleasure of the Merciful God.”Footnote ⁸⁸ “Hundred on the tongue” refers to the hundred oral chants that constitute the tasbīh, and “a thousand on the scales” is the spiritual value of a thousand good deeds on the scales [mīzān]Footnote ⁸⁹ of the hereafter.

The Twelver Imams valued this tasbīh and prescribed it to their children and their followers, indicating its immense spiritual bearing on developing piety. In a conversation with one of his students, Imam al-Sadiq stressed, “We prescribe tasbīh of Fatima to our young ones as strongly as we urge them to perform their obligatory prayers. So, [you too] observe this enjoinment for yourselves because there is none amongst God’s servants who observed the tasbīh and was saddened by it.”Footnote ⁹⁰

The tasbīh has become a key component of Muslim supplicatory practice of mystical value in Shi‘a lived tradition. Fatima has become an intermediary for millions of Muslims who seek nearness to God by chanting her tasbīh after their daily salat. Shi‘a resort to the tasbīh for supplicating for good health and abundance.Footnote ⁹¹ Fatima plays an intercessory role in the lives of Shi‘i s as they navigate the challenges of living their religious identities and preparing spiritually for their afterlife.

Intercession on the Day of Judgment

Intercession is a heavily debated concept in Islamic theology. Shi‘i theologians, however, argue for it, insisting that specific individuals can be and have been awarded the intercessory authority by God. The debate pivots around the diversity of interpretations of the Qur’anic verses on the theme of intercession. Shi‘i exegetes draw on verses such as “…who is it that may intercede with Him except with His permission?” (Q 2:255) to argue the possibility of intercession with divine approval. The Qur’an mentions the Prophet’s role as interceder when it states, “had they when they wronged themselves, come to you and pleaded to Allah for forgiveness, and the Apostle had pleaded for forgiveness for them, they would have surely found Allah All-Clement, All-Merciful.” (Q 4:64). The intercession of Jacob for his sons appears in verses such as, “they said, ‘father! Plead [with Allah] for the forgiveness of our sins! We have indeed been erring.’ He said, ‘I shall plead with my Lord to forgive you; indeed, He is the All-Forgiving, the All-Merciful’” (Q 12:97, 98).

Besides the intercession of prophets, Qur’anic verses also recommend believers to intercede for each other, which is evident from verses such as, “they who are felicitous … say, ‘Our Lord, forgive us and our brethren who were our forerunners in the faith…” (Q 59:10). Although a detailed analysis of the concept of intercession in Islamic theology is beyond the scope of this study, Shi‘i theologians are clear in their position, affirming the possibility and reality of intercession. Several narrations from the Twelver Shi‘i Imams speak to Fatima’s intercessory entitlement.

According to al-Majlisi, God gifted Fatima the power to intercede on her wedding day. Clohessy also narrates that when it was time for Fatima to wed, she asked her father for a special dower. She said, “My father, the girls of the rest of [hu]mankind are given dirhams and dinars in marriage. What is the difference between you and the rest of humanity? I will ask God Almighty to make my dower the intercession for the sinners of your community.” At that moment, Gabriel descended with a piece of silk inscribed with a message that read: God Almighty has made the dower of Fatima, the radiant daughter of Muhammad, the chosen one, intercession for his sinful community. When she was dying, Fatima asked for the piece of silk to be put in her shroud, saying, “on the Day of Resurrection, I will hold this in my hand and intercede for the sinners of my father’s community.”Footnote ⁹²

Al-Majlisi quotes several narrations that describe Fatima’s entrance on the Day of Judgment escorted by angels interceding on behalf of those who loved her, her progeny, and her followers. Quoting a narration from the Prophet, al-Majlisi states:

Another version of a similar narration states that Fatima will be accompanied by Maryam, Asiya, Eve, and Khadija as she makes her way to the plains of Judgment Day.Footnote ⁹⁴ Another classic narration recited annually in Shi‘i religious gatherings during the days of commemorating Fatima’s demise (ayyām faṭimiyya) is a stirring account of Fatima’s intercessory authority. The narration states that Imam al-Sadiq said to his companion Jabir:

The oral rendition and transmission of these narrations in Shi‘i religious congregations foster a shared sense of identity and engender a communal and spiritual kinship among the Shi‘a. Fatima, in their collective consciousness, represents the quintessence of sanctity, piety, veracity, and spirituality. As such, her narrative has become an inseparable component of the Shi‘a lived experience and an integral facet of their communal identity, facilitating a sense of belonging despite being a minority.