Index
Abu Hummus, Egypt, plant nursery 171
acclimatization 8, 265
bottle gourd
Columella on 285
of laurel in Corsica 76
Mesopotamia 50
Pliny on
prestige of 131
Actium, Battle of 59
Aelius Eutychianus, tomb garden at Puteoli 105
Aemilius Paulus, triumph of 58
Agón, Zaragoza, Spain, regulations on irrigation 118
Aïn Ouassel, Tunisia, tax relief for planting olives 168
alberata technique, grapevines trained on trees 109
Alcanadre-Lodosa canal, River Ebro 119
Almonacid dam, near Zaragoza 119
almond trees
Emilia Romagna 228
introduced to Spain 239
peach grafted onto 182
planting 102
plum grafted onto 166
Ambrussum, Narbonensis, changing food preparation
Ammianus Marcellinus, on Constantius II 148
Ammonios, soldier, vegetable garden 83
Amorgos island, temple of Zeus Temenites 114
amphorae
to import olive oil and garum to provinces 258
marketing of 159
preserved peaches in 188
treatment to waterproof 201
Annius Verus, M. 145
Anthimus, on chestnuts 174
Antioch, royal park of Seleucids 44
Antonine Plague 307
Apicius, recipes for peaches 193
arboratores, expert tree pruners 146
arboriculture
expansion from Iberia to southern Gaul 239
and grafting
on large estates 69
large-scale 3
as male preserve 153
militarization of 52
plant nurseries
see also fruit trees; orchards; treesarchaeobotany , 299
aDNA analysis 10
apricot 177
Britain 11,
citron 216
and desiccation 10
evidence of fields and orchards 9
Iberian Peninsula , 242
mineralized (latrine deposits) 10
preservation by charring 242
Tres Galliae , 294
Vesuvius area of Campania 198
and wild grape 283
see also palynologyarchaeology
and bottle gourd 77
chestnuts 174
evidence of plant nurseries 170,
of horticultural fields 12
irrigation structures 119
S. Giovanni in Laterano , 197
small farms 116
southern Gaul 249
Aristotle, on locomotion 86
Arleate (Arles) 249
Armenia, apricots 76
Arras, France
Actiparc site (military settlement), granary
Rue Baudimont site (military settlement), cereal remains 271
Arrianus Maturus 221
artichoke, development from cardoon 113
Asinius Pollio, orator 103
Asinius Pollio of Tralles 103
Assurnasipal II, king of Assyria 51
Attalus I, king of Pergamon 66
Attalus III, king of Pergamon 66
aubergine 114
Augusta Raurica (Augst, Switzerland) 258
Augustus, (C. Julius Caesar Octavianus), Emperor
and Horti Pompeiani 47
irrigation innovations 122
and public garden spaces 47
reorganization of Gallia Comata (to Tres Galliae) 258
azerole (Crataegus azarolus) (tubures)
types of 73
Baetis, River (Spain) 235
Bailey, L.H. 162
Balkans, peach from 186
banquets, public 46
Beaume-la-Rolande, fruit and vegetable cultivation 265
bees 213
Bibracte, near Autun 264
Bonaparte, Josephine 4
Bosi, Giovanna 186
Caecina Largus, lotus trees 155
Calpurnius Siculus, Eclogues, on grafting 144
camels 31
Campania
archaeobotany 198
commercial arboriculture 205
hazelnuts , 246
horticultural advances , 303
lemon/citron in , 303
modern cultivars 205
peaches 184
perfume-making 205
small estates 204
trading of produce 212
vegetable growing
viticulture 204
Capua, perfume-making 205
carrot, Oedenburg 267
Carteia, Spain, Latin colony 235
Casal Bertone, fullonica 195
cassia 75
Cassio Dio, on Livia Augusta 151
Cassius Dionysius of Utica 115
Castellammare di Stabia, Villa S. Marco, plane trees 21
catachanna (multiple-grafted plant) 145
Cato, M. Porcius the Elder
on cypress 205
on grafting 136
on hazelnuts 246
on varieties of fruit trees 139
cedar (cedrus), terminological confusion with citrus 217
Centumcellae area 94
cepotaphium, garden tomb 105
charcoal, from fruit and nut trees 210
Châteaubleau, north-central France, orchard 289
Châtillon Forest, France 262
cherries and cherry trees
application of lime to roots 112
Barcino 247
Emilia Romagna 228
and evidence of selective breeding 78
grafting 134
Oedenburg 268
Plinian variety 204
Prunus avium (sweet cherry) 61
Prunus cerasus (sour cherry)
chestnuts
Cisalpine Gaul 226
coppiced 174
Galicia 241
grafting 174
increased role in diet (late empire) 229
spread to northern Gaul 268
use of flour 173
use of timber 173
chickens, at northern villa sites 274
Chresimus, Gaius Furius, freedman, farm 161
Ciarallo, Annamaria 208
Cicero, M. Tullius
on arboriculture 5
confiscation of house in Rome 22
de Natura deorum 45
de Senectute 44
on grafting 141
on irrigation 125
on Lucullus 35
naming of gardens 18
on Transalpine Gaul 251
Cimon, planting of plane trees in Athens 55
Cisalpine Gaul
animal husbandry 221
fruit , 226
invasion of Iutungi (third century AD) 230
nuts and nut trees 226
ornamental plants 225
vineyards 221
see also Emilia RomagnaCleopatra 59
Colonia Iulia Equestris/Noviodunum (Nyon, Switzerland) 258
Columella
on apricot 177
on choice of grape variety 278
on grafting
on irrigation 120
on onions 211
on plant nurseries for vines 285
on production of vegetables 110
on use of chestnut timber in viticulture 173
on use of greenhouses 112
on varieties of fruit trees 140
on viticulture 99
on yield for vineyards 116
Constantinople, leasing of hortulani market gardens 128
Constantius II, emperor 148
cornel (Cornus mas, Cornelian cherry), Cisalpine Gaul 226
Cornelia Severa, landowner in Emilia Romagna 222
Cornelius Fronto, M. 145
Crassus, Licinius, lotus trees 155
Cremona, dates 224
Cumae, citrus pollen 220
cuniculi (irrigation and drainage channels) 33
Curtius Iustus, on peach
cuttings
early evidence of transport of vine shoots 253
as gifts to guests 156
and movement of plants 70
for propagation of fruit trees 132
tools for 85
xylobalsamum 59
Cyrus, king of Persia 43
Damasippus, art dealer 28
date palm, early domestication 134
De Angelis, Alberto 193
Deir el-Bahri temple, Egypt 50
Didyma, sanctuary of Apollo 54
Diodorus, on Phoenician revolt against Persian rule 23
Diomedis, island, tomb of Diomedes 20
Dionysius of Syracuse, plane trees at palace 20
Diophanes, Geōrgika 103
Dioscorides, physician, on Ethiopian ebony 57
Dioscurus, soldier, cultivation of vegetables 83
Egypt
annexation by Rome 59
citron in 216
roses from 78
vegetable cultivation at military sites
water-lifting devices 120
elites
as benefactors 127
estates in Narbonensis 252
and grafting 150
interest in development of new varieties 214
long-term investment in fruit production 127,
and naming of cultivars 146,
and prestige of new varieties 147
Erdoğan, Recep, president of Turkey 4
Eschenz, Switzerland, vicus Tasgetium 10
Ethiopia, ebony 57
Eua, villa of Herodes Atticus 20
Euphrates, River, use of water screw 120
fennel, seeds 267
flowers, forced for early blooms 112
fodder crops 212
food preparation, Narbonensis 256
Frederic II, of Sicily 80
freedmen
and arboriculture
entrepreneurs 160
as estate managers 163
and novelty Cretan plane tree
ownership of villas and horti 124
Pliny’s view of 165
fructus, as both ‘fruit’ and ‘profit’ 307
fruit
archaeobotanical evidence 209
commercial production 127
consumption of fresh 187
preserving methods 90
and prestige of new varieties 147
prices in Rome 92
production in Emilia Romagna 187
as ritual offerings
see also fruit trees; individual fruitsfruit galleries (oporothecae) 126
fruit trees 1, 6
Béziers 280
Britain 295
commercial production
earliest domestications
early introductions to Italy 76
in gardens 25
painted gardens 158
planted in rows 91
to produce charcoal 210
revenue from 166
transplantation of new
see also apple trees; arboriculture; cherries; fig trees; grafting; lemon trees; orchards; peaches; pear trees; plumsfullonica washing/bleaching or tannery, Casal Bertone 195
funerary rituals, and plant remains
Furius Crassipes, property in Rome 28
Gadatas, satrap, transplantation of fruit trees
Gallia Narbonensis (southern Gaul) , 292
archaeology 249
centuriation of agricultural land
expansion of viticulture 253,
fruit cultivation
introduced fruits
planned urbanization 250
plant dispersal and social access , 292
remodelling of Celtic settlements 256
see also BéziersGallienus, and out-of-season fruit 148
garden tombs
gardens
design of 156
ideological dimension of 107
as spaces for ambulationes and display , 301
walkways in
garlic, Oedenburg 267
Gasquinoy, Béziers, farms
wild grape vines , 306
Gaul
agricultural expansion in northeast
colonization programmes 234
extent 248
peach in 186
pomegranate cultivation 201
see also Cisalpine Gaul; Gallia Narbonenis; Tres GalliaeGellius, Aulus 44
Germania, Tacitus on 63
Gier aqueduct, Lyon 120
glass, containers for preserving food 90
Gleason, Kathryn 146
Gortyn, Crete, novelty plane tree 164
Gothic War (535-554) 230
Gracchus, Tiberius 45
grafting 1, 301
and arboriculture
as control over nature , 153
economic value of
to hasten maturity 134
importance of 131
impossible combinations , 166
introduced to northwestern Europe 86
Livia Augusta
male connotation 152
morality of (Pliny) 149
multiple
peach trees 182
to produce new varieties , 141
in response to increased demand 142
as skill to boast of 154
sour cherry onto wild cherry 61
as unnatural 162
grafting techniques 132,
‘inarching’ 138
methods (Columella) 137
plant compatibility 136,
rootstock 136
grapes and grapevines
early domestication 134
and grafting 135
grapes for table 286
Holconia variety 204
Pompey’s new variety 141
protection from frost with transparent panes 112
wild and intermediate types , 306
see also viticulture; wine-makingHadrian, emperor 302
Hatshepsut, of Egypt, importation of trees 50
hay, composition of (Oplontis) 212
Haye Forest, northeast Gaul 261
hazelnuts
from Campania ,
Cisalpine Gaul 226
coppiced 290
early domestication 247
possible introduction to Spain
Tres Galliae 289
Helico, holitor (in Tusculum) 125
Henchir Mettich, Tunisia, olive plantations 168
herbal toxicology 66
Herennia Tertia, Cadianus estate at Nola 240
Herod, king, gardens at Jericho 155
Herodes Atticus, villa at Eua 20
Herodotus, on tribute of ebony from Ethiopia 57
Hispania Citerior (Tarraconensis)
fruit varieties 244
local wine production 237
olives 245
rural settlements 239
honey 213
Horace, on cabbage 124
horrea (warehouses/granaries) 251
Hortenius, Q. 35
horti, fruit orchards 46
Horti Scipionis, Rome 45
Horti trans Tiberim, Rome 37,
horticultural treatises 88, , 128, 279, 298
on cultivation and propagation of peach
on viticulture 99
horticulture
and ars vs. natura 148
Baetica, Spain 238
geographical specialization
and Roman suburban residences 46
Hostius Pamphilus, C., epitaph on garden tomb 108
Hyères, France, Etruscan Grand Ribauld F shipwreck 253
Iberian Peninsula , 292, 304
decline in varieties in late antiquity 244
distribution of fruit species 245
effect of colonization on 238
introduced fruits and vegetables , 242,
irrigation infrastructure 119
regional differences 248
Roman landowners 235
trade 236
variety of cultivation types 241
irrigation and irrigation technologies 114,
archaeological evidence 119
Barcino 246
canals 119
for commercial production 125
cuniculi 33
dams 119
on imperial estates 122
medieval Muslim techniques 117
North African water-management 121
Roman legal water rights 118
use of Archimedes’ screw 120
water-lifting technology 120
see also water supplyIulia Benedicta, tomb garden at Puteoli 105
Iulius Epaphra, C., fruit-seller 188
Iulius Hymetius, C. 124
Iutungi tribes, invasion of northern Italy 230
Ivanishvili, Bidzina, acquisition of trees 4
Jaime II, king of Spain 80
Jericho, Herod’s gardens 155
Judaism, and citron 217
jujube tree (zizipha)
Cisalphine Gaul 224
Julian, jurist 125
Justinian, Novella 128
Justus Lipsius 107
Languedoc, vineyards 281
lapis specularis (selenium gypsum), for greenhouses and protective screens 112
laurel, in Corsica 76
Le Bois Harleé, near Longueil-Sainte-Marie, Gallo-Roman site 265
leeks 78
Livia Augusta (Livia Drusilla), wife of Augustus
creation of new fig by grafting
exceptional honours 153
political role
rural aqueduct 126
Lucullus, L. Licinius
date of retirement from public life
as epitome of luxury , 35
horti (on Pincian Hill) , 64, 300
date of creation 32
irrigation and drainage channels 33
later ownership 29
site of
rivalry with Pompey 29
lupins 213
Lysander, visit to king Cyrus 43
Macedonia, and grape vine 53
Macrobius, on grafting 130
Maecenas, Gaius, gardens 98
Maenas (Maecenas) Licinus, on food preservation 101
Malmaison, Château de 4
marble, black (Lucullan) 30
Marcellus Aeserninus, and novelty plane tree 164
Marcius Philippus, L., villa in Puteoli 37
Marcus Aurelius, emperor, on multiple grafting 145
Mas de Vignoles IX, Nîmes, archaeobotany of wells 252
Masclus, decurion 84
Massalia (Marseille) 249
Mattingly, David 1
medlar, in northern Gaul 264
melons/(cucumbers)
Cisalpine Gaul 226
Iberia 248
melopepo (new melon or watermelon?) 213
northern Gaul
snake 112
watermelon 226
Memmius, C., tribune 29
Messala Corvinus, Valerius 29
Messalina, empress 29
Minius Percennius, propagation of cypress 205
Morley, Neville 104
Muel dam, near Zaragoza 119
must fermentation 71
naked wheats (Triticum aestivum/durum) 225, 270
as choice 270
imported (northern France) 271
processing 270
Nemetacum, near Arras, France 271
nemus (grove), in Porticus Pompeiana 40
Nero, emperor, Horti Maiani 26
Nicolaus of Damascus 31
Nikopolis, Moesia, funerary inscription 148
Nineveh, gardens 51
Oedenburg/Biesheim-Kunheim, Alsace, France 77,
Argentovaria civilian settlement 266
changing diet under Romans 269
fruits and nuts 268
herbs and condiments 266
imported plant foods 268
locally grown fruits 268
as military camp 266
temple complex 268
vegetables 267
walnut 268
Ofellius Ferus, Gaius 40
olive oil, imported to provinces 258
olives and olive trees 1
absence from Tres Galliae 264
in Centumcellae area 94
Cisalphine Gaul 224
commercial production
cultivation of 162
early domestication 134
Pompey’s new variety 141
presses and mills 7,
spread to provinces 71
tax relief for planting 168
varieties 277
Oplontis
Oppius, On Wild Trees 103
orchards
Châteaubleau 289
contouring of soil 208
as display of skill 154
Pompeii
terraced 206
yields of pomegranates 202
see also fruit treesOss-Westerveld, Netherlands, new plant foods 273
Ovid, on chestnuts 173
paradeisos, concept of 44
Parma, chestnuts 226
peaches and peach trees
in Campania 215
‘farm’ at S. Giovanni in Laterano 166,
hybrid peach–almond rootstock 183
origins 178
from Persia 76
preserving methods 183,
size of fruits 187
soil conditions 182
textual evidence for 179
varieties 180
peristyle garden, symbolism of
Persia
importance of rulers’ gardens
Petronius (Gaius Petronius ‘Arbiter’), Satyricon, on tomb gardens 106
Phoenicians, revolt against Persian rule 23
pine nuts 224
Plancus, L. Munatius, founding of colonies 258
plane trees , 21
in Athens 55
Cisalpine Gaul 225
to give shade 25
Greek associations of 21
in hippodrome garden 25
novelty Cretan
plants
aromatic 205
and language of citizenship
naming of 62,
see also fruits; trees; vegetables; individual plantsplants, movement of
agents of ,
and identification of best varieties 129
need for technical knowledge 80
see also acclimatization; colonial settlers; Gaul; Iberian Peninsula; veteransPliny the Elder 1
on ‘African’ fig 69
on Augustan colonies 237
on balsam 60
on Britain 63
on cassia 75
on citron (‘Median apple’) 218
commercial revenue from fruit cultivation 166
on ebony 57
and freedmen arboriculturalists 161
on jujube and azerole 72
on Lucullus 31
on manuring and irrigation 115
on melopepo 213
on Narbonensis 251
Naturalis Historia 2,
on novelty Cretan plane tree
on peach , 192
on Pompey’s triumph 56
on profitability of horticulture 113
on profitability of viticulture 99
on samphire 293
on Seleucus Nicator 53
sources for horticultural information
view of exotic plants
on viticulture in Cisalpine Gaul 221
on water-lifting devices 120
Pliny the Younger
choice of plants 26
description of garden in Tuscis , 301
gardener’s name clipped in box 25
hippodrome garden form
on mixed agriculture 221
name clipped in box 25
Plutarch
on grafting 144
on horti of Lucullus
on plane trees in Athens 55
on triumph of Aemilius Paulus 58
pomarium, fruit orchard 96
pomegranate (malum Punicum) 76
Cisalpine Gaul 224
early domestication 134
for medicinal preparations 200
to Spain 239
traded 200
use of human urine as fertilizer 115
uses for 199
yields 202
Pompeii
bakery next to House of the Chaste Lovers 212
charcoal record 210
chestnuts 174
depictions of Archimedes’ screw 120
evidence of foods 209
evidence of plant nurseries
gardens 12
House of the Floral Lararium 172
House of the Garden of Hercules 171
House of the Ship Europa 203
House of the Wedding of Hercules and Hebes 219
lupin sellers 213
preserved fruits and vegetables 90
Villa of the Mosaic Columns, tomb garden 105
Villa of the Mysteries 211
Villa of the Papyri 219
Pompeius Falco, Q., senator 145
Pompeius Lenaeus, translation of Mithridates’ pharmacological notes 66
Pompey the Great
new fig variety 2,
Porticus (theatre-cum-temple complex) 30, , 45, 65, 108
date of project 41
later owners 47
layout 40
opening of 46
rivalry with Lucullus 29
significance of triumph 56,
Porticus Octaviae 47
Potitus, Valerius Messalla, and viticulture 99
propagation of plants
of chestnut 175
evidence of, Vindolanda
peach trees
by suckers 132
use of trees for shade 208
see also cuttings; graftingPropertius, on grafting 144
pruning hooks 85
public works 17
Pudion, planting of olive trees (North Africa) 170
quinces, Neapolis 205
Quintilius Condianus, Sextus, on peach
Quintilius Valerius Maximus, Sextus, on peach
radish, Neapolis 210
Rea, Rossella 192
reeds (Arundo or Phragmites), for vine supports 282
Regulus, M. Attilius, Horti trans Tiberim 26
Remnius Palaemon, Q.
Rhegium, plane trees 20
Rome, city of
aqueducts
Casal Bertone fullonica 195
Casale di Galeria inscription 122
citron 220
Colosseum (sewers) 187
demand for land 28
Forum Holitorium (vegetable market) 92
gardens , range - chapter
gardens of temple of Heliogabalus 12
Livia’s building projects 150
Pompey’s theatre 39
quadriportico gardens (Pompey) 39
temple to Venus Victrix 39
Via Gaetano Sacchi hortus 93
see also S. Giovanni in LateranoRussell, Amy 23
Russi, near Ravenna, peaches 186
Rutupiae (Richborough), Kent, commercial horticulture 296
S. Giovanni in Laterano
apparent abandonment 192
archaeology , 197
buildings 191
cultivated area 191
as imperial property 195
irrigation system 122,
peach farm 166,
reservoir
road 190
saltpans (salina), Vigo, Galicia 241
samphire 293
Sarno, River, transportation of agricultural produce 211
savory, summer 267
Sceptius, freedman, and mala Sceptiana apple 161
seafood, consumption of 274
Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, attempted introduction of spices 53
Sennacherib, gardens in Nineveh 51
Sicily, plane trees from 20
snails, land, consumption of 274
soil erosion, need to control 116
South Etruria Survey 126
Spain, apple cultivar 71
Squatriti, Paolo, on chestnuts 174
Statilius Taurus, amphitheatre 47
statuary
archaeological evidence for 19
Cicero’s 19
in gardens 18
herm of head of Athena 19
in Porticus Pompeiana 40
statues of owner 26
Sthenelus, Acilius, vineyard 161
Strabo
on Cisalpine Gaul 221
on grape vines in Mesopotamia 53
on Lake Avernus 206
on Persian nobles 44
on water-lifting devices 120
Sutrium, between Rome and Viterbo, aqueduct 126
sycamore fig, early domestication 134
Tacitus, on Germania 63
Tbilisi, Georgia 4
Tegea, basilica of Thrysos 110
territorial expansion, plants as symbols of 50
Theophrastus
on citron (‘Median apple’) 217
on fruit trees 152
on grafting 135
on propagation from seeds 133
Thutmosis III, of Egypt 50
Thyrsus, freedman of Augustus 124
Tiberius, emperor
at Misenum villa 158
porticoed garden at Altinum 48
use of planters on wheels for snake melons 112
Tiberius Nero, foundation of Narbonensis colonies 249
Tiglat-Pileser I, Assyrian king, botanical gardens 50
Tiro, Sabinus, work on gardening 98
Titus, emperor, display of balsam plant 56
tomb gardens
as locus amoenus 106
Torre del Greco, Naples, citrus 219
trade, and warehouses 251
Trajan, emperor, alimentary scheme (Tabula from Veleia)
Tremellius Scrofa, Gn., fruit galleries 126
Ulpian, Digest, on manuring 115
Umbricius Scaurus, garum container (urcei) 160
Ureu, Tunisia, grafting of olive trees on Aufidianus estate 168
Vada Sabatia, Emilia Romagna, plant remains in well 227
Valerius Asiaticus 30
Valerius Messalla, M. 35
Valgius Rufus, C., on medicinal properties of plants 103
Varro, M. Terentius 41, 139
de Re Rustica
on Lucullus’ aviary 30
on display 3
fruit galleries (oporothecae) 126
grafting of cherry 61
on honey production 213
on varieties of fruit trees 140
vegetable gardens (horti) 6, 12
in colonial towns 250
as female space 152
market gardens, on lease 127
Neapolis 210
owned by professional associations 128
Roman suburbs 124
vegetables 6, 129, 301
Britain 295
effect of market forces on production techniques 109
price of 111
root, Oedenburg 267
salad crops, Oedenburg 267
techniques to produce unusual shapes 113
see also cabbages; legumes; lettuce; pulsesVeleia, near Piacenza, Trajan’s Tabula
Verecundus, Iulius, commander at Vindolanda 84
Vespasian, emperor, display of balsam plant 56
Vigo, Galicia, saltpans 241
Villa della Pisanella, Campania 204
Vindonissa (Windsch-Breite, Switzerland), pomegranate 200
vinea, vineyard 96
vineyards
Britain 295
irrigated (North Africa) 121
soil preparation 12
water to establish 127
yields 116
see also grapes and grapevines; viticultureviticulture
and access to plant stock 285
alberata technique 109
arbustum technique 109
Campania 204
commercial 277
early evidence of transport of cuttings 253
horticultural treatises 99
as male preserve 153
Narbonensis 253
use of chestnut posts 173
vite maritata technique 206
Vitruvius, water wheels 122
Vorderberg, Switzerland, Petinesca vicus 77
walkways, in gardens
water supply
aqueducts
cisterns 126
to Roman suburbium 92
Rome 17
S. Giovanni in Laterano 189
see also aqueducts; irrigationweights and measures, standardization of 104
Xenophon, Oeconomicus 43
Zenon archive, Egypt, evidence of plant nurseries 171
