Sense of place

Sense of place represents all dimensions of human perception and interpretation of the environment in an emotional, spiritual and cognitive way (Tuan Reference Tuan1977; Jorgensen & Stedman Reference Jorgensen and Stedman2006). People develop a sense of place as a result of biological, individual and sociocultural processes that take place while people experience (namely by interacting, knowing, perceiving, or living; Russell et al. Reference Russell, Guerry, Balvanera, Gould, Basurto, Chan, Klain, Levine and Tam2013) the physical environment (Table 1). In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, sense of place was referred to as the relationship between people and ecosystems, this relationship representing a natural condition indispensable for human existence (MA 2005). However, the concept has had a long history of application in multiple disciplines, and has only recently been recognized as an ecosystem service (MA 2005).

Table 1 Components of the development of sense of place and attributes of each component affecting peoples’ perspectives.

The terminology surrounding sense of place varies across different disciplines (Table 2). For example, in environmental psychology and sociological studies, sense of place is referred to as peoples’ attachment to, identification with, and dependence on places, and has been used to describe connections with, and perceptions of, environments affecting human behaviour (Stedman Reference Stedman2002). In human geography, sense of place entails all the meanings that people assign to places, which define the perceived value of their attributes and appearance (Tuan Reference Tuan1990). In health sciences, peoples’ connection with the natural environment has been described as a biologically-based condition, essential for human health (such as mental health and recovery; Maller et al. Reference Maller, Townsend, Pryor, Brown and St Leger2006). In ecosystem management, sense of place refers to public attitudes toward the environment and its management (for example in urban planning, natural resource management, and land-use planning), and has been used to assess social impacts of specific management decisions (Bauer et al. Reference Bauer, Wallner and Hunziker2009). Finally, sense of place plays a key role in tourism development, and has been studied to understand its contribution to tourists’ perceived value of experience, expectations, and satisfaction in relation to a specific destination (Kil et al. Reference Kil, Holland, Stein and Ko2012).

Table 2 Concepts related to sense of place that have been used in different disciplines to describe various aspects of the human relationship with the natural environment.

Use in biodiversity conservation and management

Sense of place plays a key role in predicting and promoting public support for conservation in diverse socioecological contexts (Garcia-Llorente et al. Reference Garcia-Llorente, Martín -Lopez, Iniesta-Arandia, Lopez-Santiago, Aguilera and Montes2012; Lokhorst et al. Reference Lokhorst, Hoon, le Rutte and de Snoo2014). In conservation science, sense of place has been explored as part of attitudes toward accepting conservation policies (for example, conservation easements in private lands; Farmer et al. Reference Farmer, Knapp, Meretsky, Chancellor and Fischer2011), and supporting environmental conservation (Garcia-Llorente et al. Reference Garcia-Llorente, Martín -Lopez, Iniesta-Arandia, Lopez-Santiago, Aguilera and Montes2012; Lokhorst et al. Reference Lokhorst, Hoon, le Rutte and de Snoo2014). Connection to nature increases peoples’ perceptions of sense of place, promoting personal involvement in conservation (Lokhorst et al. Reference Lokhorst, Hoon, le Rutte and de Snoo2014). In urban areas, green spaces (like public parks, private gardens, or allotments for horticulture) provide access to nature and sense of place (van Riper et al. Reference van Riper, Kyle, Sutton, Barnes and Sherrouse2012; Meurk et al. Reference Meurk, Blaschke, Simcock and Dymond2013), increasing awareness for environmental conservation (Bendt et al. Reference Bendt, Barthel and Colding2013), and social collaboration for their management (Andersson et al. Reference Andersson, Barthel and Ahrne2007; van Wyk et al. Reference van Wyk, Breen and Freimund2014). Moreover, the conservation of soundscapes related to sense of place (such as natural quietness or the sounds of wildlife) may be a way to alleviate human pressure on ecosystems and promote biodiversity conservation (Dumyahn & Pijanowski Reference Dumyahn and Pijanowski2011). Communities that perceived such values and understood the threats to sense of place were helpful in informing land-use planning (Brown & Raymond Reference Brown and Raymond2007), and identifying sites of environmental concern (Raymond et al. Reference Raymond, Bryan, MacDonald, Cast, Strathearn, Grandgirard and Kalivas2009).

One of the main issues hindering the integration of sense of place into ecosystem management is the high variability in how people perceive the environment (which may vary according to cultural background or personal experience; Borrie & Birzell Reference Borrie, Birzell, Friedmund and Cole2001). Insights designed to overcome this issue may be found in previous studies (see Sevenant & Antrop Reference Sevenant and Antrop2010; Di Minin et al. Reference Di Minin, Fraser, Slotow and MacMillan2013 a), where latent class analysis was used to account for heterogeneity when exploring people preferences for environmental attributes. A latent class model implies that preferences are not unique to individuals, but belong to a finite and identifiable number of homogeneous classes of preferences. Individual membership of a class is explained by the sociodemographic profile (Boxall & Adamowicz Reference Boxall and Adamowicz2002). However, the application of latent class modelling to explain variability in sense of place perceptions still needs to be explored.

Another issue is related to the unclear relationship between sense of place and biodiversity (Williams & Stuart 1998). Horwitz et al. (Reference Horwitz, Lindsay and O'Connor2001) stated that biodiversity, and its spatially distinctive features (such as species endemism, genetic diversity, and species abundance), is essential if ecosystems are to provoke attachment and stimulate an individual's identification with a particular place. Attractive landscapes elicit stronger emotional responses (Kaltenborn Reference Kaltenborn1998; Larson et al. Reference Larson, De Freitas and Hicks2013), while interest in a particular species (such as charismatic megafauna) or ecosystems (like wilderness areas or national parks) is positively related to peoples’ attachment to and willingness to conserve such items (Kaltenborn Reference Kaltenborn1998; Martín-López et al. Reference Martín-López, Montes and Benayas2007). Although people recognize the intrinsic value of biological diversity (Martín-López et al. Reference Martín-López, Montes and Benayas2007), Larson et al. (Reference Larson, De Freitas and Hicks2013) found that biodiversity was not valued by people for sense of place.

Evidence suggests that playing and exploring in natural environments during childhood may lead to the development of a sense of place and raise environmental awareness (Measham Reference Measham2006). At the same time, human geographers describe sense of place as a centre of meanings developed by experiencing environments (Tuan Reference Tuan1977). While people can experience the environment through knowing, perceiving, interacting and living within it (Russell et al. Reference Russell, Guerry, Balvanera, Gould, Basurto, Chan, Klain, Levine and Tam2013), the characteristics or activities associated with natural environments (such as fishing, hunting, or beauty of landscape) are also important to establishing a sense of place (Larson et al. Reference Larson, De Freitas and Hicks2013). Biodiversity features (for example species or ecosystems), and physical attributes related to natural environments, may also affect the way people develop a sense of place.

Interests in species and landscapes are expressions of perceived benefits (such as stress relief; Hartig & Staats Reference Hartig and Staats2006) and reflect demand for cultural services (Cardinale et al. Reference Cardinale, Duffy, Gonzalez, Hooper, Perrings, Venail, Narwani, Mace, Tilman and Wardle2012) like sense of place. Preferences and willingness to pay are often used to assess the economic importance of perceived values for biodiversity (Martín-López et al. Reference Martín-López, Montes and Benayas2007; Di Minin et al. Reference Di Minin, Fraser, Slotow and MacMillan2013 a), and may be explored to assess the value of sense of place for biodiversity-related experiences. There is guidance to quantitatively assess sense of place (Mendoza & Moren-Alegret Reference Mendoza and Moren-Alegret2013) and estimate the economic value of cultural services (Chan et al. Reference Chan, Satterfield and Goldstein2012). Among these, stated preferences methods (Adamowicz et al. Reference Adamowicz, Boxall, Williams and Louviere1998), used in environmental economics, have been suggested for estimating the marginal utility value of non-marketed goods and services (see Chan et al. Reference Chan, Satterfield and Goldstein2012). These approaches can be applied to assess what people value most highly for sense of place when experiencing ecosystems.

Threats, actions and sense of place

Habitat destruction, overexploitation of resources, species introduction, pollution (Diamond Reference Diamond and Nitecki1984), and climate change (Heller & Zavaleta Reference Heller and Zavaleta2009) are major drivers of biodiversity loss. We developed a conceptual framework (Fig. 1) of where sense of place could be included in conservation decision-making, and how it could be used to potentially mitigate threats to biodiversity conservation.

Sense of place development depends on the environment (namely physical features and attributes; an ecosystem's appearance and conditions), and is therefore also subject to threats affecting biodiversity. For example, land transformation occurring in ‘special’ places for sense of place (visited for recreational purposes; Kil et al. Reference Kil, Holland, Stein and Ko2012), as well as loss of access to traditional place-related lifestyles (resources harvesting or spiritual and religious symbolic meanings; Alkan et al. Reference Alkan, Korkmaz and Tolunay2009) may negatively affect individual psychology and a community's cultural values (Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2009). Alien plant invasion can affect environmental features and landscape appearance (by for example increasing soil erosion; Pejchar & Mooney Reference Pejchar and Mooney2009), affecting traditional uses and customs connected to places (MA 2005). Pollution may also negatively affect sense of place, including exposure to noise pollution (Dumyahn & Pijanowski Reference Dumyahn and Pijanowski2011), or perceptions of environmental risks and concern for the future (Bickerstaff Reference Bickerstaff2004). Climate change causes environmental changes (such as rising sea levels, increasing temperatures, and extreme weather events) that alter the physical characteristics of places, causing both identity and emotional disruptions between people and ecosystems (Reser et al. Reference Reser, Morrissey, Ellul and Weissbecker2011).

Understanding how people respond to environmental changes (impacts on psychological health and well-being, response at local, national and global scales; Fresque-Baxter & Armitage Reference Fresque-Baxter and Armitage2012; Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2013) is critical in order to identify management actions for adaptation (such as adjustments of structures, processes and practices). Moreover, it has the potential to provide new conceptual understandings that may help build resilience of both human and ecological systems (Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2013). Integrating sense of place into ecosystem management may help identify opportunities that both mitigate threats to biodiversity, and foster human well-being in ecosystem management (Fig. 1).

Mapping communities’ sense of place (see Raymond et al. Reference Raymond, Bryan, MacDonald, Cast, Strathearn, Grandgirard and Kalivas2009) could help identify human-valued priority areas, such as ‘critical natural capital’, that may have been overlooked (Chiesura & De Groot Reference Chiesura and De Groot2003) (Fig. 1). For example, recreational sites provide access to sense of place (Kil et al. Reference Kil, Holland, Stein and Ko2012), and recreation demonstrates increased value of lands, provides competitive financial support to local stakeholders, and improves species diversity and conservation (Bateman et al. Reference Bateman, Harwood, Mace, Watson, Abson, Andrews, Binner, Crowe, Day and Dugdale2013; Di Minin et al. Reference Di Minin, Fraser, Slotow and MacMillan2013 b). Moreover, companies transforming natural habitats to alternative land uses (such as mining) could help conserve and enhance the service in other areas (McKenney & Kiesecker Reference McKenney and Kiesecker2010), thus compensating for habitat destruction (Fig. 1).

In urban planning, the development of a green infrastructure fosters psychological well-being by providing daily access to natural settings and sense of place (Maller et al. Reference Maller, Townsend, Pryor, Brown and St Leger2006; Tzoulas et al. Reference Tzoulas, Korpela, Venn, Yli-Pelkonen, Kaźmierczak, Niemela and James2007; Bendt et al. Reference Bendt, Barthel and Colding2013), while ensuring a range of ecosystem services in urban areas (such as air filtration, microclimate regulation, and noise reduction; Gaston et al. Reference Gaston, Ávila-Jiménez and Edmondson2013). Urban green spaces may enhance biodiversity through the promotion of ecological corridors and habitat connectivity (Rudd et al. Reference Rudd, Vala and Schaefer2002), as well as providing a refuge for native biodiversity (Goddard et al. Reference Goddard, Dougill and Benton2010). Psychological benefits of green spaces increase with species richness (Fuller et al. Reference Fuller, Irvine, Devine-Wright, Warren and Gaston2007). Management strategies enhancing biological diversity (such as mosaics of habitat patches; Thwaites et al. Reference Thwaites, Helleur and Simkins2005) and sense of place experiences in urban green space, could contribute to both human well-being and biodiversity conservation (Fig. 1).

In rural areas, the promotion of low impact, traditional land uses (such as subsistence agriculture and small-scale farming) could also promote human well-being through sense of place (Phillips Reference Phillips1998) and sustainable development (Halladay & Gilmour Reference Halladay and Gilmour1995) (Fig. 1). Cultural landscapes represent those areas where human influence (traditional use of land and resources; Urquhart & Acott Reference Urquhart and Acott2014) has been part of ecosystem dynamics over the centuries, affecting landscape appearance (Phillips Reference Phillips1998), and species adaptation and diversity (Halladay & Gilmour Reference Halladay and Gilmour1995), while maintaining ecological processes (nutrient cycling and connectivity). This is particularly important in developing countries, where the maintenance of traditional systems would help create incentives for traditional land-use practices (Halladay & Gilmour Reference Halladay and Gilmour1995). Enhancing the value of native biodiversity for sense of place experiences could help identify critical native species, such as local cultivar varieties for agricultural practices (Perreault Reference Perreault2005) or wildlife for ecotourism (Martín-López et al. Reference Martín-López, Montes and Benayas2007; Di Minin et al. Reference Di Minin, Fraser, Slotow and MacMillan2013 a), and enhance their conservation (Fig. 1).

Globally, sense of place has the potential to contribute to actions for climate change adaptation (by increasing the network of nature reserves, alleviating pressure on land use practices, and creating culturally appropriate management interventions; Heller & Zavaleta Reference Heller and Zavaleta2009). However, of greater importance is the value of the collective actions and pro-environmental behaviours that sense of place, at a local (neighbourhood) and global scale, elicits in people (Lewicka Reference Lewicka2005). Moreover, the development of a sense of ‘global place’ (Feitelson Reference Feitelson1991) increases public concern for worldwide environmental issues, such as environmental changes (Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2013) and land transformations (Foley et al. Reference Foley, Ramankutty, Brauman, Cassidy, Gerber, Johnston, Mueller, O'Connell, Ray and West2011), enhancing social collaborations and public acceptance of management intervention for global resilience goals (Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2013).

Integrating sense of place in community-based management (Manzo Reference Manzo2006) and environmental impact assessment (Kaltenborn Reference Kaltenborn1998) (Fig. 1) provides an opportunity to tap into peoples’ attachment and stimulate pro-environmental behaviours (Brehm et al. Reference Brehm, Eisenhauer and Stedman2013). Involving local people in decision-making reduces conflicts with communities (Chan et al. Reference Chan, Pringle, Ranganathan, Boggs, Chan, Ehrlich, Haff, Heller, Al-khafaji and Macmynowski2007) and provides support to the long-term success of conservation actions (Tallis et al. Reference Tallis, Kareiva, Marvier and Chang2008). This is relevant in avoiding public opposition to environmental development in places considered important for sense of place (referred as the ‘not in my backyard’ [NIMBY] attitude; Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2009). This reaction may be the result of imposed changes, often unrelated to local identities, and may generate conflicts between institutions, conservation and people (Devine-Wright Reference Devine-Wright2009).

While conserving sense of place may produce positive benefits (Fig. 1), peoples’ preferences for environmental attributes and qualities may, in some cases, be misaligned with biodiversity conservation objectives (Kerley et al. Reference Kerley, Geach and Vial2003). This is the case, for example, with species introduction (ornamental plants or horticulture; Reichard & White Reference Reichard and White2001), human-wildlife conflict (involving overkilling of predators to avoid livestock predation, concerns for the future, and concerns about maintaining quality of life; Treves et al. Reference Treves, Naughton-Treves and Shelley2013), or natural environment transformation (Buijs et al. Reference Buijs, Elands and Langers2009). People may perceive heavily-managed landscapes (such as commercial forests or monocultures) as aesthetically pleasing, while natural habitats (such as wetlands or deserts) may appear unattractive (Buijs et al. Reference Buijs, Elands and Langers2009). Although sense of place conservation does not necessarily match ecologically important ecosystems, peoples’ cultural values related to sense of place (Phillips Reference Phillips1998) may promote beneficial opportunities to address threats to biodiversity. As stated by Saunders (Reference Saunders2013, p. 17) ‘incorporating local cultural aspects into conservation interventions does not necessarily mean privileging local material concerns, but it would mean that local embodied experiences and interests can be more fully integrated into conservation planning decisions’.