Hostname: page-component-669899f699-cf6xr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-29T17:41:14.377Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Extent and Correlates of Public Support for Deterrence Reforms and Hot Spots Policing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Christi Metcalfe  and
Justin T. Pickett
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

As one approach to prison downsizing and criminal justice reform, scholars recommend altering the nature of policing by reallocating resources toward policing and increasing sentinel patrols and hot spots interventions. Public attitudes toward these reforms are unknown. In the current police crisis, shifting policies in ways disfavored by the public can impact police-community relations, especially among those disproportionately affected. The current study uses survey data from a nationally representative sample of Americans to evaluate whether the public is receptive to the suggested reforms. Our results indicate that the majority of the general public believes policing is more cost-effective than incarceration and supports a focus on sentinel patrols and crime hot spots, although there is less support for hot spots policing among blacks, Hispanics, and lower income individuals. The hot spots policing strategy most preferred is situational prevention, and the least supported is aggressive order-maintenance policing.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 52 , Issue 2 , June 2018 , pp. 471 - 502
Copyright
© 2018 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Christi Metcalfe, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of South Carolina. Her research interests include criminal courts, developmental/life course criminology, punitive attitudes, and quantitative methods.

Justin T. Pickett, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the School of Criminal Justice at the University at Albany, SUNY. His research interests include survey research methods and public opinion about crime and punishment. He is currently examining public attitudes toward sanctioning scientific misconduct. His recent work has appeared in Criminology, Sociological Methods & Research, and other leading criminology and sociology journals.

References

Ackerman, Bruce & Fishkin, James S. (2002) “Deliberation Day,” 10 J. of Political Philosophy 129–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, Michelle (2012) The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
Allcott, Hunt (2011) “Consumers’ Perceptions and Misperceptions of Energy Costs,” 101 American Economic Rev. 98–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ariel, Barak, Weinborn, Cristobal, & Sherman, Lawrence W. (2016) ““Soft” Policing at Hot Spots—Do Police Community Support Officers Work? A Randomized Controlled Trial,” 12 J. of Experimental Criminology 277–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, Thomas, et al. (2015) “Examining Public Preferences for the Allocation of Resources to Rehabilitative versus Punitive Crime Policies,” 26 Criminal Justice Policy Rev. 448–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkan, Steven E. & Cohn, Steven E. (2010) “Contemporary Regional Differences in Support by Whites for the Death Penalty: A Research Note,” 27 Justice Q. 458–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumer, Eric (2003) “Explaining Spatial Variation in Support for Capital Punishment: A Multilevel Analysis,” 108 American J. of Sociology 844–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Monica C. (2016) “Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement,” 126 The Yale Law J. 2057–150.Google Scholar
Bishop, George F. (2005) The Illusion of Public Opinion: Fact and Artifact in American Public Opinion Polls. Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.Google Scholar
Blalock, Hubert M. (1967) Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York: John Wiley and Sons Publishers.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D. & Thompson, Victor (2010) “Racialized Mass Incarceration: Poverty, Prejudice, and Punishment,” in Markus, H. R. & Moya, P., eds., Doing Race: 21 Essays from the 21st Century. New York: Norton. 322–55.Google Scholar
Brace, Paul & Boyea, Brent D. (2008) “State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty and the Practice of Electing Judges,” 52 American J. of Political Science 360–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A. & Bond, Brenda J. (2008) “Policing Crime and Disorder Hot Spots: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” 46 Criminology 577–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., Papachristos, Andrew, & Hureau, David (2012) “Hot Spots Policing Effects on Crime,” 8 Campbell Systematic Rev. 1–96.Google Scholar
Braga, Anthony A. & Weisburd, David L. (2012) “The Effects of Focused Deterrence Strategies on Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence,” 49 J. of Research in Crime and Delinquency 323–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., Welsh, Brandon C., & Schnell, Cory (2015) “Can Policing Disorder Reduce Crime? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” 52 J. of Research in Crime and Delinquency 567–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., et al. (2011) Moving the Work of Criminal Investigators towards Crime Control: New Perspectives in Policing. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Brayne, Sarah (2014) “Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment,” 79 American Sociological Rev. 367–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brayne, Sarah (2017) “Big Data Surveillance: The Case of Policing,” 82 American Sociological Rev. 977–1008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bushway, Shawn D. (2016) “Evaluating Realignment: What Do We Learn about the Impact of Incarceration on Crime?,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 309–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice & Shotts, Kenneth W. (2004) “The Conditional Nature of Presidential Responsiveness to Public Opinion,” 48 American J. of Political Science 690–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chalfin, Aaron & McCrary, Justin (2013) Are U.S. Cities Underpoliced? Theory and Evidence. Working Paper, Univ. of California, Berkley.Google Scholar
Chang, Linchiat & Krosnick, Jon A. (2009) “National Surveys via RDD Telephone Interviewing versus the Internet: Comparing Sample Representativeness and Response Quality,” 72 Public Opinion Q. 641–78.Google Scholar
Chiricos, Ted, Welch, Kelly, & Gertz, Marc (2004) “Racial Typification of Crime and Support for Punitive Measures,” 42 Criminology 359–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, Ronald V. (1997) Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, 2nd ed. New York: Harrow and Heston.Google Scholar
Clear, Todd R. & Frost, Natasha (2014) The Punishment Imperative: The Rise and Failure of Mass Incarceration in America. New York: New York Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark A., Rust, Ronald T., & Steen, Sara (2006) “Prevention, Crime Control, or Cash? Public Preferences towards Criminal Justice Spending Priorities,” 23 Justice Q. 317–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Mark A., et al. (2004) “Willingness-to-Pay for Crime Control Programs,” 42 Criminology 89–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, Maureen A. & Richeson, Jennifer A. (2014a) “On the Precipice of a “Majority-Minority” America: Perceived Status Threat from the Racial Demographic Shift Affects White Americans’ Political Ideology,” 25 Psychological Science 1189–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, Maureen A. & Richeson, Jennifer A. (2014b) “More Diverse yet Less Tolerant? How the Increasingly Diverse Racial Landscape Affects White Americans’ Racial Attitudes,” 40 Personality and Social Psychology 750–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Cullen, Francis T., Fisher, Bonnie S., & Applegate, Brandon K. (2000). “Public opinion about punishment and corrections,” 27 Crime and Justice 1–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullen, Francis T. & Pratt, Travis C. (2016) “Toward a Theory of Police Effects,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 799–811.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dagan, David & Teles, Steven M. (2014) “Locked in? Conservative Reform and the Future of Mass Incarceration,” 651 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 266–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. (1957) “Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker,” 6 J. of Public Law 279–95.Google Scholar
De Keijser, Jan W. (2014) “Penal Theory and Popular Opinion: The Deficiencies of Direct Engagement,” in Ryberg, J. & Roberts, J. V., eds., Popular Punishment: On the Normative Significance of Public Opinion. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 101–18.Google Scholar
Dillman, Don A., Smyth, Jolene D., & Christian, Leah M. (2014) Internet, Phone, Mail, and Mixed-Mode Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, 4th ed. Hoboken: Wiley.Google Scholar
Donovan, Kathleen M. & Klahm, Charles F. IV (2015) “The Role of Entertainment Media in Perceptions of Police Use of Force,” 42 Criminal Justice and Behavior 1261–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durlauf, Steven N. & Nagin, Daniel S. (2011) “Imprisonment and Crime: Can Both Be Reduced?,” 10 Criminology & Public Policy 13–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durose, Matthew R., Cooper, Alexia D., & Snyder, Howard N. (2014) “Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010,” Bureau of Justice Statistics. Available at: http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/rprts05p0510.pdf (accessed 22 March 2018).Google Scholar
Dutwin, David & Buskirk, Trent D. (2017) “Apples to Oranges or Gala versus Golden Delicious? Comparing Data Quality of Nonprobability Internet Samples to Low Response Rate Probability Samples,” 81 Public Opinion Q. 213–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Easton, David (1965) A System's Analysis of Political Life. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Easton, David (1975) “A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support,” 5 British J. of Political Science 435–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enns, Peter K. (2016) Incarceration Nation: How the United States Became the Most Punitive Democracy in the World. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epp, Charles R. (2009) Making Rights Real: Activists, Bureaucrats, and the Creation of the Legalistic State. Chicago: The Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, David (2001) The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gau, Jacinta M. & Brunson, Rod K. (2010) “Procedural Justice and Order Maintenance Policing: A Study of Inter-City Young Men's Perceptions of Police Legitimacy,” 27 Justice Q. 254–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie (2015) Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groff, Elizabeth R., et al. (2015) “Does What Police Do at Hot Spots Matter? The Philadelphia Policing Tactics Experiment,” 53 Criminology 23–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, Robert M. (2006) “Nonresponse Rates and Nonresponse Bias in Household Surveys,” 70 Public Opinion Q. 646–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, Robert M. & Peytcheva, Emilia (2008) “The Impact of Nonresponse Rates on Nonresponse Bias,” 72 Public Opinion Q. 167–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haberman, Cory P., et al. (2016) “Satisfaction with Police in Violent Crime Hot Spots: Using Community Surveys as a Guide for Selecting Hot Spots Policing Tactics,” 26 Crime & Delinquency 525–57.Google Scholar
Hagan, John, Shedd, Carla, & Payne, Monique R. (2005) “Race, Ethnicity, and Youth Perceptions of Criminal Justice,” 70 American Sociological Rev. 381–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Devon, et al. (2011) “Attitudes toward the Use of Racial/Ethnic Profiling to Prevent Crime and Terrorism,” 22 Criminal Justice Policy Rev. 422–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Rucker & Raphael, Steven (2012) “How Much Crime Reduction Does the Marginal Prisoner Buy?,” 55 J. of Law and Economics 275–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Jeffrey M. (2015) In U.S., Confidence in Police Lowest in 22 Years. Gallup. Available at: http://www.gallup.com/poll/183704/confidence-police-lowest-years.aspx (accessed 22 March 2018).Google Scholar
Kirk, David & Papachristos, Andrew V. (2011) “Cultural Mechanisms and the Persistence of Neighborhood Violence,” 116 American J. of Sociology 1190–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleck, Gary (2016) “Objective Risks and Individual Perceptions of Those Risks,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 767–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochel, Tammy R. (2011) “Constructing Hot Spots Policing: Unexamined Consequences for Disadvantaged Populations and for Police Legitimacy,” 22 Criminal Justice Policy Rev. 350–74.Google Scholar
Kochel, Tammy R. & Weisburd, David (2017) “Assessing the Community Consequences of Implementing Hot Spots Policing in Residential Areas: Findings from a Randomized Field Trial,” 13 J. of Experimental Criminology 143–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krosnick, Jon A., Malhortra, Neil, & Mittal, Urja (2014) “Public Misunderstanding of Political Facts: How Question Wording Affected Estimates of Partisan Differences in Birtherism,” 78 Public Opinion Q. 147–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krosnick, Jon A., et al. (2015) The Future of Survey Research: Challenges and Opportunities. The National Science Foundation Advisory Committee for the Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Subcommittee on Advancing SBE Survey. Available at: http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/AC_Materials/The_Future_of_Survey_Research.pdf (accessed 22 March 2018).Google Scholar
Lofstrom, Magnus & Raphael, Steven (2013) Public Safety Realignment and Crime Rates in California. San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California.Google Scholar
Lofstrom, Magnus & Raphael, Steven (2016) “Prison Downsizing and Public Safety: Evidence from California,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 349–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lum, Cynthia & Nagin, Daniel S. (2015) “Reinventing American Policing: A Seven-Point Blueprint for the 21st Century,” in Tonry, M., ed., Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Manza, Jeff, Brooks, Clem, & Uggen, Christopher (2004) “Public Attitudes toward Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States,” 68 Public Opinion Q. 275–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maruna, Shadd & Toch, Hans (2005) “The Impact of Imprisonment on the Desistance Process,” in Travis, J. & Visher, C., eds., Prisoner Reentry and Crime in America. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 139–78.Google Scholar
Murphy, Kristina, Hinds, Lyn, & Flemming, Jenny (2008) “Encouraging Public Cooperation and Support for Police,” 18 Policing & Society 136–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. (2011) Population-Based Survey Experiments. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Nagin, Daniel S. (2016) “What We'Ve Got Here Is Failure to Communicate,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 753–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, Daniel S., Solow, Robert M., & Lum, Cynthia (2015) “Deterrence, Criminal Opportunities, and the Police,” 53 Criminology 74–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peck, Jennifer H. (2015) “Minority Perceptions of the Police: A State-of-the-Art Review,” 38 Policing: An International J. of Police Strategies and Management 173–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, Mark G. & Eure, Philip K. (2016) An Analysis of Quality-of-Life Summonses, Quality-of-Life Misdemeanor Arrests, and Felony Crime in New York City, 2010–2015. New York City Department of Investigation Office of the Inspector General for the NYPD (OIG-NYPD). Available at: http://www1.nyc.gov/assets/oignypd/downloads/pdf/Quality-of-Life-Report-2010-2015.pdf (accessed 22 March 2018).Google Scholar
Petersilia, Joan (2003) When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Petersilia, Joan & Cullen, Francis T. (2015) “Liberal but Not Stupid: Meeting the Promise of Downsizing Prisons,” 2 Stanford J. of Criminal Law and Policy 1–43.Google Scholar
Pickett, Justin T. (2016) “On the Social Foundations for Crimmigration: Latino Threat and Support for Expanded Police Powers,” 32 J. of Quantitative Criminology 103–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickett, Justin T. & Baker, Thomas (2014) “The Pragmatic American: Empirical Reality or Methodological Artifact?,” 52 Criminology 195–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickett, Justin T. & Roche, Sean P. (2016) “Arrested Development: Misguided Directions in Deterrence Theory and Policy,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 727–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piquero, Alex R., et al. (2009) “Effects of Early Family/Parent Training Programs on Antisocial Behavior and Delinquency,” 5 J. of Experimental Criminology 83–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piquero, Alex R., et al. (2010) “Never Too Late: Public Optimism about Juvenile Rehabilitation,” 12 Punishment & Society 187–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piza, Eric L. & O'Hara, Brian A. (2014) “Saturation Foot-Patrol in a High-Violence Area: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation,” 31 Justice Q. 693–718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez, Mark D. (2014) “Competing Pressures and Complex Choices: African Americans and the Death Penalty,” 4 Race and Justice 75–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez, Mark D. (2015) “Racial Discrimination, Fear of Crime, and Variability in Blacks’ Preferences for Punitive and Preventative Anti-Crime Policies,” 37 Political Behavior 419–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raphael, Steven (2014) “How Do We Reduce Incarceration Rates While Maintaining Public Safety?,” 13 Criminology & Public Policy 579–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratcliffe, Jerry H., et al. (2011) “The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Police Patrol Effectiveness in Violent Crime Hotspots,” 49 Criminology 795–831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratcliffe, Jerry H., et al. (2015) “Citizens’ Reactions to Hot Spots Policing: Impacts on Perceptions of Crime, Disorder, Safety and Police,” 11 J. of Experimental Criminology 393–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisig, Michael D., Tankebe, Justice, & Meško, Gorazd (2012) “Procedural Justice, Police Legitimacy, and Public Cooperation with the Police among Young Slovene Adults,” 14 J. of Criminal Justice and Security 147–64.Google Scholar
Rios, Victor (2011) Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys. New York: New York Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, Paul H. (2008) Distributive Principles of Criminal Law: Who Should Be Punished How Much? New York: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Paul H. & Darley, John M. (2007) “Intuitions of Justice: Implications for Criminal Law and Justice Policy,” 81 South California Law Rev. 1–67.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, Dennis P. (2006) “Critic: The Limits of Hot Spots Policing,” in Weisburd, D. & Braga, A. A., eds., Police Innovation: Contrasting Perspectives. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 245–63.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard (2016) Documenting and Explaining the 2015 Homicide Rise: Research Directions. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard, Deckard, Michael J., & Blackburn, Emily (2014) “The Effects of Directed Patrol and Self-Initiated Enforcement on Firearm Violence: A Randomized Controlled Study of Hot Spot Policing,” 52 Criminology 428–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santos, Rachel B. & Santos, Roberto G. (2016) “Offender-Focused Police Intervention in Residential Burglary and Theft from Vehicle Hot Spots: A Partially Blocked Randomized Control Trial,” 12 J. of Experimental Criminology 373–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarat, Austin (1977) “Studying American Legal Culture,” 11 Law & Society Rev. 427–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saris, Willem, et al. (2010) “Comparing Questions with Agree/Disagree Response Options to Questions with Item-Specific Response Options,” 4 Survey Research Methods 61–79.Google Scholar
Scherer, Nancy & Curry, Brett (2010) “Does Descriptive Race Representation Enhance Institutional Legitimacy? The Case of the U.S. Courts,” 72 The J. of Politics 90–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulhofer, Stephen J., Tyler, Tom R., & Huq, Aziz Z. (2011) “American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative,” 101 The J. of Criminal Law and Criminology 335–74.Google Scholar
Silver, Jasmine R. (2017) “Moral Foundations, Intuitions of Justice, and the Intricacies of Punitive Sentiment,” 51 Law & Society Rev. 413–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundt, Jody, et al. (2015) “Public Willingness to Downsize Prisons: Implications from Oregon,” 10 Victims & Offenders 365–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunshine, Jason & Tyler, Tom R. (2003) “The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing,” 37 Law & Society Rev. 513–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweeten, Gary (2016) “What Works, What Doesn't, What's Constitutional? The Problem with Assessing an Unconstitutional Police Practice,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 67–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Telep, Cody W., Mitchell, Renee J., & Weisburd, David (2014) “How Much Time Should the Police Spend at Crime Hot Spots? Answers from a Police Agency Directed Randomized Field Trial in Sacramento, California,” 31 Justice Q. 905–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thielo, Angela J., et al. (2016) “Rehabilitation in a Red State: Public Support for Correctional Reform in Texas,” 15 Criminology & Public Policy 137–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tonry, Michael H. (2011) Punishing Race: A Continuing American Dilemma. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. (1990) Why People Obey the Law: Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Compliance. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. (2004) “Enhancing Police Legitimacy,” 593 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 84–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. & Huo, Yuen J. (2002) Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. & Jackson, Jonathan (2014) “Popular Legitimacy and the Exercise of Legal Authority: Motivating Compliance, Cooperation, and Engagement,” 20 Psychology, Public Policy and Law 78–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., Schulhofer, Stephen, & Huq, Aziz Z. (2010) “Legitimacy and Deterrence Effects in Counterterrorism Policing: A Study of Muslim Americans,” 44 Law & Society Rev. 365–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Cleve, Nicole G. & Mayes, Lauren (2015) “Criminal Justice through “Colorblind” Lenses: A Call to Examine the Mutual Constitution of Race and Criminal Justice,” 40 Law & Social Inquiry 406–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wacquant, Loic (2002) “From Slavery to Mass Incarceration: Rethinking the ‘Race Question’ in the US,” 13 New Left Rev. 41–60.Google Scholar
Wacquant, Loic (2007) “Territorial Stigmatization in the Age of Advanced Marginality,” 91 Thesis Eleven 66–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinberg, Jill D., Freese, Jeremy, & McElhattan, David (2014) “Comparing Data Characteristics and Results of an Online Factorial Survey between a Population-Based and a Crowdsource-Recruited Sample,” 1 Sociological Science 292–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisburd, David & Eck, John E. (2004) “What Can Police Do to Reduce Crime, Disorder, and Fear?,” 593 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 42–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisburd, David, et al. (2010) “Is Problem Oriented Policing Effective in Reducing Crime and Disorder?,” 9 Criminology & Public Policy 139–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisburd, David, et al. (2011) “The Possible “Backfire” Effects of Hot Spots Policing: An Experimental Assessment of Impacts on Legitimacy, Fear and Collective Efficacy,” 7 J. of Experimental Criminology 297–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald (2015) “American Policing under Fire: Misconduct and Reform,” 52 Society 475–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald J. & Tuch, Steven A. (2002) “Perceptions of racial profiling: Race, class, and personal experience,” 40 Criminology 435–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald J. & Tuch, Steven A. (2004) “Race and Perceptions of Police Misconduct,” 51 Social Problems 305–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald J. & Tuch, Steven A. (2005) “Racially Biased Policing: Determinants of Citizen Perceptions,” 83 Social Forces 1009–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzer, Ronald J. & Tuch, Steven A. (2006) Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Kelly, et al. (2011) “The Typification of Hispanics as Criminals and Support for Punitive Crime Control Policies,” 40 Social Science Research 822–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welsh, Brandon C. & Farrington, David P. (2012) “Science, Politics, and Crime Prevention: Toward a New Crime Policy,” 40 J. of Criminal Justice 128–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Western, Bruce (2006) Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: The Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Wilson, James Q. & Kelling, George L. (1982) “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety,” 249 Atlantic Monthly 29–38.Google Scholar
Wolfgang, Marvin E., Figlio, Robert M., & Sellin, Thorsten (1972) Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago: The Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Yeager, David S. & Krosnick, Jon A. (2012) “Does Mentioning “Some People” and “Other People” in an Opinion Question Improve Measurement Quality?,” 76 Public Opinion Q. 131–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeager, David S., et al. (2011) “Comparing the Accuracy of RDD Telephone Surveys and Internet Surveys Conducted with Probability and Non-Probability Samples,” 75 Public Opinion Q. 709–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar