Simon Blackburn, a prominent British atheist philosopher, offers a compelling analogy to stress the problem of evil and suffering:

With his comparison, Blackburn aims to demonstrate the inconsistency in the belief in a theistic God. God is often described as omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Considering the evil and suffering that exist in the world, for Blackburn, this description is absurd. It is illogical because an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-compassionate God would do something to eliminate evil and suffering in the world. As one would expect the management of the university to change the situation in the dormitory, so God should intervene to stop the suffering of people. Considering this challenge, this chapter explores the problem of evil and suffering. What are the concepts of evil and suffering? How do major religious traditions address the problem? What are the questions posed to traditional theism regarding evil and suffering? I begin with the definition of evil and suffering.

Theologians and philosophers have no consensus on definitions of evil and suffering. Evil is often described as something that is harmful, hurtful, undesirable, immoral, unjust, and sinful. Suffering is the outcome of evil. It is manifested in forms of sorrow, distress, physical pain, and mental illness.

Scholars have classified evil into different groups. The most common typologies are moral and natural evil. Moral evil is attributed to human beings as a result of the misuse of their free will. Some examples of moral evil are rape, child abuse, theft, genocide, murder, injustice, hatred, gossip, and dishonesty. In the case of natural evil, human agency is not involved. It is beyond human control and does not happen because of them – for example, earthquakes, floods, cancer, animal suffering, hurricanes, and birth defects.

There are also instances when moral and natural evil overlap. One example could be global warming. While it has a natural aspect, human agency is also involved. Floods can be seen as a form of natural evil; however, if people do not take the necessary measures, such events could become more destructive.

Religious Traditions on Evil and Suffering

The problem of evil and suffering is as old as human history. Why is there so much evil and suffering? Let alone bad people, why have good people, innocents, and animals faced suffering because of evil? Religions seek answers to these questions and provide explanations to their followers.

One of them is the ancient tradition of Zoroastrianism. It explains the problem of evil through its doctrine of dualism. According to this approach, there exist good and evil forces in the world, and they are at war with each other. The followers of Zoroastrianism believe that there is a wise lord (Ahura Mazda), whose army consists of angels and archangels, and an evil lord (Angra Mainyu), who is followed by demons and archdevils. All types of evil, including death, originate from the evil lord. The wise lord aims to eradicate evil and suffering in the world. The forces of good will eventually overcome evil and bring peace and prosperity to the world. While people have the freedom to choose between good and evil, they are taught to opt for good because their choices will determine the state of their lives in the hereafter. The consequence for them will be either heaven or hell.Footnote ²

A similar approach to the problem of evil was articulated in Manichaeism, a tradition that dates to the third century ce. Like Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism also taught dualism. According to this doctrine, there are two natures in the universe: light and darkness. While light represents good and peace, darkness represents evil and conflict. The universe is the realm of struggle between good and evil forces, and there is not an omnipotent good power that dominates both. While God is the actor in the good realm, Satan represents the dominion of evil. Because it is part of the material world, humanity belongs to the realm of darkness; however, it has the capacity to be enlightened through the power of God. Therefore, humans are the battleground for both forces. Manichaeism’s approach to evil and suffering appealed to many and spread from the Roman Empire to China.Footnote ³

Evil and Suffering in Major Dharmic Religions

The problem of evil and suffering has also remained a key question in Hinduism, the oldest dharmic tradition. One of the most important concepts related to evil and suffering in Hinduism is karma, the doctrine of cause and effect. According to this teaching, people suffer because of their actions. Good actions bring goodness, while bad actions cause suffering. Evil and suffering cannot be explained with reference to chance or accident. People are responsible for them. Their actions determine their present as well as future conditions.Footnote ⁴ Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this view is the lack of a divine power in the picture. That is why some major Western intellectuals, such as Max Weber and Peter Burger, found the doctrine of karma appealing. Weber, for example, wrote that “the most complete formal solution of the problem of theodicy is the special achievement of the Indian doctrine of karma, the so-called belief in the transmigration of souls. The world is viewed as a completely connected and self-contained cosmos of ethical retribution.”Footnote ⁵ God is not involved in people’s affairs concerning evil, as they create their own destinies. People’s “fate in the successive lives of the soul” through multiple incarnations depends on their good and bad actions.Footnote ⁶ In this regard, for Weber, karma provides a reasonable answer for the sufferings of those who are innocent. Relying on Weber’s approach to theodicy, Peter Berger also viewed the doctrine of karma as “the most rational” explanation among all theodicies. He noted that as part of the teaching of karma, “the individual has no one to blame for his misfortunes except himself – and conversely, he may ascribe his good fortune to nothing but his own merits.”Footnote ⁷ According to this interpretation, the power is in human hands. People have the sole agency over their actions as well as their destiny.

Perhaps no religion is concerned with the problem of evil and suffering as much as Buddhism. In fact, the story of Buddhism begins with this problem. Siddhartha Gautama – who came to be known as the Buddha after finding a profound answer to the question – was a prince enjoying an extravagant life in his father’s palace. He was married and had a son. Getting bored with his luxurious life, the Buddha ventured out in a chariot accompanied by his charioteer a number of times. On his journey, the Buddha encountered four sights. The first three were an old man, a sick person in pain, and a dead body. When the Buddha asked his charioteer about them, he answered that these persons were going through the stages of life, and every human will go through the same phases. These three scenes of sickness, aging, and death dismantled the Buddha’s joyful life. He realized that life is suffering as long as people go through these stages. In the fourth sighting, the Buddha saw an ascetic who did not have any material possessions and still looked happy and content in the midst of suffering. The ascetic inspired the Buddha and gave him hope to find an answer to suffering. He returned from the trip with a new understanding of reality. One night the Buddha left everything behind and embarked on a spiritual path of exploring a life without suffering. After the long journey of an ascetic life, and working with various teachers, the Buddha was enlightened and reached nirvana, the ideal spiritual state.

The Buddha then offered some guidelines for those who wanted to overcome suffering in life. However, he was uninterested in speculation. This is best reflected in one of the Buddhist parables. A monk was troubled by the Buddha’s silence concerning the major questions of life, the nature of the world and body, and whether there is life after death. To prove how it is unnecessary to engage with metaphysical speculations, the Buddha gave an example of a man who was severely wounded by a poisoned arrow. People around him, including friends and relatives, wanted to take the man to a physician for immediate treatment. The Buddha then asked the monk to imagine that the man did not want the arrow removed until he knew who shot it, that person’s clan, his appearance, his village, and why he shot it. What would happen? If he were to wait until all these questions were answered, the man would die. What matters in this situation is to get rid of the arrow to remove the pain and suffering.Footnote ⁸ That is why instead of being exhausted with speculation, the Buddha offered practical steps, the four noble truths, to deal with evil and suffering. The first step begins with the acknowledgment that there is suffering. This suffering is related not only to illness, old age, and death but also to emotional pain as well as suffering because of the impermanence of things. Being united with loved ones, for example, brings happiness; however, there is eventually separation. Impermanence is the nature of everything in this world, which leads to pain and suffering. The second noble truth is that suffering is caused by desires and attachments that are unsatisfied as well as ignorance – not knowing the nature of the things in the world. The third is that suffering can be transformed through detachment or by dismantling the disappointing desires. The fourth noble truth is that there is a path to liberating oneself from suffering. For this stage, the Buddha teaches specific ways to attain nirvana: (1) right view or understanding, (2) right resolve, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right concentration.Footnote ⁹ They are usually categorized as moral virtues, meditation, and wisdom. What is distinctive about Buddhism and Hinduism is that neither tradition makes any connection between a divine being and the problem of evil and suffering.

Evil and Suffering in Judaism and Christianity

Unlike the dharmic traditions, the Abrahamic religions engaged with the problem of evil and suffering in relation to a supreme being, God. God is the creator, he is the cause of all causes, he is omnibenevolent, omnipotent, and omniscient. There is nothing beyond his knowledge. Concerning God’s attributes, the great Jewish philosopher and theologian Maimonides (d. 1204) wrote: “The foundation of all foundations and the pillar of wisdom is to know that there is a Primary Being who brought into being all existence. All the beings of the heavens, the earth, and what is between them came into existence only from the truth of His being.” God is the creator of the world and the Lord of the entire earth: “He controls the sphere with infinite and unbounded power.”Footnote ¹⁰

God is also the source of morality. There is no duality in the universe either. This approach created questions about God concerning evil and suffering in the universe. Many Jewish theologians attempted to reconcile evil and suffering with God’s justice. Maimonides, for example, pointed out that good dominates the world and evil is minor compared to it. God’s “true kindness, and beneficence, and goodness” is evident in the world.Footnote ¹¹ In addition, Maimonides classified evil into three categories: evil that is caused by nature, evil that people bring upon others, and self-inflicted evil.Footnote ¹² For him, natural evil is necessary for the world and an essential part of God’s plan. Maimonides also contested that asking why there is evil and suffering in the world is not the right question, because being part of the material world requires evil and suffering. A better question would be: “Why did God create us as part of this material world?” However, afflictions because of nature are still few in number:

Maimonides also indicated that the second type of evil is not very common either: “It is of rare occurrence that a man plans to kill his neighbor or to rob him of his property by night. Many persons are, however, afflicted with this kind of evil in great wars: but these are not frequent, if the whole inhabited part of the earth is taken into consideration.”Footnote ¹⁴

He believed that self-inflicted evil is the root cause of most suffering in the world. This type of evil originates from people’s excessive desires for things such as food, drink, and love. People indulge in these things disproportionately, which leads to “diseases and afflictions upon body and soul alike.”Footnote ¹⁵ Humans are the victims of their own desires. In this regard, the origin of evil is people themselves. This approach is echoed in the words of Carl Gustav Jung (d. 1961): “We need more understanding of human nature, because the only real danger that exists is man himself. He is the great danger, and we are pitifully unaware of it. We know nothing of man, far too little. His psyche should be studied, because we are the origin of all coming evil.”Footnote ¹⁶

Saadia Gaon (d. 942), another Jewish philosopher, pointed out that God loves those who suffer. Making reference to the rabbinic doctrine of the sufferings of love, he maintained that God inflicts those whom he loves with unmerited sufferings in order to justify their eternal reward in the hereafter.Footnote ¹⁷ Saadia observed that there are three benefits of suffering. First, suffering is a means of character building. It is a way for people to be trained and disciplined. For this aspect of suffering, Saadia gives the example of a hardworking scholar: “We know from our own experience that one who is wise does burden himself with late hours and hard work, reading books, taxing his mental powers and discernment, to understand.”Footnote ¹⁸ Such a scholar would experience difficulties on the journey because of that hard work. However, no one can argue that injustice is involved. Likewise, God brings suffering upon his people to form a better character in them.Footnote ¹⁹

Second, suffering may be a punishment for the sin and wrongdoing of people. This type of suffering will purify people and bring them closer to their Creator:

To elaborate his point, Saadia provides the example of a father who would make his child “swallow bitter draughts and loathsome medicine to free him from illness or set right a distempered constitution.” A skilled physician would do a similar thing to his patients. In the process, the pain would be justified because it serves to “eliminate disease and harm.”Footnote ²⁰ Likewise, God inflicts his people with suffering so that they can advance spiritually.

Third, suffering is a form of test and trial for the innocent. If people turn to God in the midst of their suffering and remain patient, then they will receive a great reward in the hereafter: “An upright servant, whose Lord knows that he will bear sufferings loosed upon him and hold steadfast in his uprightness, is subjected to certain sufferings, so that when he steadfastly bears them, his Lord may reward and bless him. This too is a kind of bounty and beneficence, for it brings the servant to everlasting blessedness.” For Saadia, the suffering of innocents falls within this category. This form of suffering is not unjust but rather an act of generosity and compassion. Saadia supports his point with the example of Job in the Hebrew Bible. He was tested and remained patient and faithful. As compensation, Job was “assured eternal bliss in the hereafter and granted far more than he had hoped for in this life.”Footnote ²¹

The problem of evil and suffering is a major theme of Christian theology as well. Like Judaism, the Christian tradition teaches God to be omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent. However, it also offers two distinct theological additions: a triune God and the doctrine of the original sin. In this regard, one of the most important concepts is atonement. While in the Hebrew Bible the concept is related to salvation, in Christian theology, it implies that there should be reconciliation between God and humans because of the original sin.Footnote ²² This sin originates from Adam and Eve. According to Saint Augustine (d. 430), while living in a perfect world as beings with freedom of choice, Adam and Eve disobeyed God and ate a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. This event is known as the Fall in Christian theology. As a result of Adam and Eve’s disobedience, every human being is born sinful, as they inherit a sinful state. Both moral and natural evil exist in the world because of the original sin.Footnote ²³ The sin also created an estrangement between humans and God. To reconcile this, God became human through Jesus Christ to redeem people’s sins and forgive them. In addition, the suffering of Jesus on the cross shows that God is not indifferent to people’s suffering. God’s justice will eventually be revealed in the hereafter. While those who were obedient will be saved through Christ and enjoy the eternal kingdom of God, the disobedient will be condemned to eternal punishment.Footnote ²⁴ Augustine also pointed out that evil is the lack (privation) of goodness. It is not an entity and does not exist. He gives the example of diseases and wounds in animals. Their existence in the body of animals is the absence of health. Once they are recovered, diseases and wounds cease to exist instead of moving somewhere else.Footnote ²⁵ Another example that Augustine provides is blindness, which is the absence of sight. It is not a thing in itself. Similarly, evil is not an entity and does not exist. It is a moving away from what is created as good through the freedom of the will.Footnote ²⁶

Another major theodicy came from Irenaeus, a Christian theologian who lived in the second century ce. Unlike Augustine, Irenaeus believed that while this world is the best possible world, it is still imperfect because humans have not fully developed yet. Their development and progress toward perfection require free will and the existence of evil and suffering.Footnote ²⁷ The English theologian and philosopher John Hick (d. 2012) later expanded on the theodicy of Irenaeus in his Evil and the God of Love. He pointed out that God permits evil and suffering in the world to form humans into moral beings, which will enable them to follow God’s will. God did not create humans as perfect, because the perfection that is achieved through trials and tribulations is more valuable than initial perfection. Hick uses the analogy of a parent and their child. While a loving parent would like to see their child be happy, in some cases they may also like to see their child struggle because it is through challenges that the child will be able to embody values such as “moral integrity, unselfishness, compassion, courage, humour, reverence for the truth, and perhaps above all the capacity for love.”Footnote ²⁸ Hick’s approach is known as the soul-making theodicy.

Challenges to the Theistic View of Evil and Suffering

Evil and suffering have remained not only a religious problem but also a nonreligious one. Many philosophers have pointed out that the idea of a powerful, just, and loving God cannot be reconciled with the evil and suffering that exist in the world. For many atheists, there is a logical inconsistency in believing in a theistic God because of evil and suffering.

Salahuddin Jitmoud, an American Muslim, was stabbed to death and robbed in an apartment complex in Lexington, Kentucky, in April 2015. He was making pizza deliveries. What is notable about Salahuddin’s case is how his father, Abdul Munim Sombat Jitmoud, treated the person who killed his son. Abdul Munim moved to the United States with his family from Thailand and served as the principal of a number of Islamic schools in various states, including Kentucky. During a court hearing in 2017, Abdul Munim turned to the man convicted of the murder of his son and stated that he forgave him:

The father not only forgave the convict, he also stepped forward and hugged him. He noted that one of the verses of the Qur’an that he often turned to for comfort was: “Say, ‘Nothing will happen to us except what God has decreed for us. He is our Protector, and in God let the believers put their trust.’”Footnote ² In addition, Abdul Munim pointed out that he advised the convict to turn to God, who is the most forgiving. The following verse from the Qur’an became an inspiration for Abdul Munim to forgive the killer of his son: “Let them pardon and forgive. Do you not wish that God should forgive you? God is Forgiving and Merciful.”Footnote ³ Abdul Munim’s faith in God led him to this remarkable forgiveness. Because of his outstanding example of compassion, Abdul Munim received Malaysia’s first Compassion Award icon from the Ministry of Religious Affairs in 2019.Footnote ⁴ The award is known as “mercy to all people” (rahmatan lil alamin), a reference from the Qur’an indicating that God sent Muhammad as a mercy for all creatures.Footnote ⁵ So who is the God of Muslims? How do Muslims relate to their divinity? This chapter examines the concept of God and his attributes in Islamic theology. I also explore the roles of humans, angels, and Satan in relation to the Creator.

While Muslims refer to God by many different names, the most common name used to invoke or address and praise God is Allah. Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians also use this word, which derives from the combination of the Arabic article al and the word ilah. In this regard, Allah literally means “the God.” Grammatically speaking, the word Allah has no plural form or associated gender.

Islamic tradition relates that in Mecca, the birthplace of Islam, people already had a notion of Allah but associated other gods with him. While the Meccans considered Allah to be their supreme creator, they also believed that other deities existed that interceded between them and Allah. Islamic tradition dates the history of Mecca to Abraham, his concubine Hagar, and his son Ishmael, who brought monotheism to Mecca. But it is believed that at some point, through interactions with neighboring cities, Mecca was introduced to polytheism. By the dawn of Islam, the Kaaba – built by Abraham and his family as the house of the one God – was full of deities. With the coming of Islam, Arab society was reintroduced to its monotheistic roots and the belief in one God, or Allah. But who is this God whom Muslims worship?

To understand and know the ways of God, Muslims turn to three sources: the Qur’an, the Prophet Muhammad, and the created universe itself. When trying to comprehend God, Muslims believe that one should first look at the creation. The Qur’an relates the following verse: “I [God] created jinn and humankind only that they might worship me.”Footnote ⁶ The purpose of creation is to know, worship, and remember God. This form of worship and remembrance is by choice, not force. Some of the Qur’an commentaries interpret the phrase “only to worship Me” as “only to know me.” In line with this interpretation, a widely circulated sacred narration (hadith al-qudsi) reports that God said, “I was a hidden treasure, and I loved to be known; so I created creation in order to be known.”Footnote ⁷ In the center of the story of the creation stands God’s desire to reveal and introduce himself.

A few analogies might help us to understand the Islamic theology of creation. Perhaps one of the most enjoyable things for artists is to exhibit their work. Through their exhibits, artists not only delight in seeing their pieces displayed but also enjoy visitors’ appreciation and admiration. For teachers, one of the most pleasing things is to show their knowledge and share it with an audience. In the same way, people who are beautiful or perfect in some way or possess specific knowledge and skills naturally aim to reveal, display, and manifest these qualities and abilities. They would especially like to express their skills to those capable of both understanding and offering a proper response.Footnote ⁸ From an Islamic point of view, knowledge, love, and worship of the creator make up that appropriate response. God exhibits his large treasure of skills and blessings in this universe and invites his creation, particularly humans, to freely and consciously acknowledge him as their only creator. That, in short, is the main purpose of creation in Islam.

God’s Names: Asma al-Husna

The most important way of knowing God is through his most beautiful names (asma al-husna). God reveals himself through these names, which the Qur’an refers to as follows: “The most beautiful names belong to God, so call on Him by them.”Footnote ⁹ In another verse, the Qur’an instructs its followers to “call upon God, or the Compassionate – whatever names you call Him, the most beautiful names belong to Him.”Footnote ¹⁰ The Qur’an repeatedly mentions God by different names and attributes. In chapter 59, for example, many of God’s names are listed together:

While Islamic literature often references the ninety-nine names of God, the Qur’an mentions more than a hundred. Therefore, the number ninety-nine should not be taken literally, since scripture contains more than that. All chapters of the Qur’an except one begin with the names of God, al-Rahman and al-Rahim, the most compassionate and the most merciful. God is al-Khaliq, the one who brings everything from nonexistence to existence. God is al-‘Adl, the embodiment of justice. God is al-‘Alim, the all-knowing one; there is nothing beyond his knowledge. God is al-Razzaq, the provider. God is al-Latif, the most gracious one. God is al-Ghafur, the all-forgiving one. God is al-Wadud, the all-loving one. God is al-Mumit, the one who inflicts death. God is also al-Muhyi, the one who gives life. God is al-Quddus, the most holy one – the one who is pure and without imperfection. The self-cleansing of the universe through alteration, transformation, death, and recreation is regarded as the manifestation of this name. God is also al-Qayyum, the self-sufficient one, who depends on nothing but on whom everything depends.

The Qur’an refers to this attribute of God with the following verse:

Muslims often know this verse by heart and usually recite it in their daily supplications.

Angels and Their Nature

When the time comes during the academic year to discuss the subject of angels, I always stop first to ask my students whether they believe in angels. A few inevitably affirm their belief, others will say they are agnostic, but the majority of the students respond in the negative. With modernity and progress in science, belief in supernatural beings such as angels is waning. While the number of those who believe in the existence of angels is declining, the majority of Americans still believe angels are present. According to a 2016 study, 72 percent of Americans believe in the existence of angels; in 2001, 79 percent believed in angels.Footnote ²⁵

Belief in the existence of angels has been part of the teachings of many religious traditions, including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity. Zoroastrianism, for example, recognizes several types of angels, each with a distinctive function. Followers of this tradition choose an angel for protection or an angel who serves as a guide to them. They dedicate prayers to that angel throughout their lives. In the Hebrew Bible, angels appeared to major figures such as Abraham, Moses, and Jacob. When Abraham was about to sacrifice his son Isaac, an angel appeared and stopped him. Abraham sacrificed a ram instead. In the Jewish sacred texts, angels are depicted in a variety of roles: healers, messengers, guardians or protectors, teachers, and warriors. Jewish scholars, including the medieval philosopher Maimonides (d. 1204), wrote of angelic hierarchies. Angels in each category have distinct features and functions.

Angels also appear frequently in the New Testament. One of the first mentions is in the Gospel of Luke when an angel appears to Zachariah in Jerusalem’s temple. The angel brings the good news of the birth of John the Baptist.Footnote ²⁶ In the same Gospel, the archangel Gabriel appears to the Virgin Mary and tells her she will miraculously conceive and give birth to a son who will be called Jesus.Footnote ²⁷ The New Testament relates many other occasions of angelic appearances. As in the Jewish tradition, angels often appear as messengers, guardians, and teachers.

Probably no other religion emphasizes its belief in angels as much as Islam. Given that the Qur’an and the hadiths repeatedly refer to angels and that belief in angels is one of the articles of faith, not believing in angels calls into question the sincerity of a Muslim’s faith. The Qur’an stresses that those who deny the existence of angels are misguided.Footnote ²⁸

Prominent Muslim scholar Al-Suyuti (d. 1505) compiled around 750 hadiths about angels in his work dedicated to their study in Islam.Footnote ²⁹ Despite its importance in sacred texts as well as in the popular literature of Islam, the study of angels is often dismissed as unimportant.

Between Angels and Human Beings: Jinns

In addition to angels, Muslims believe in the existence of jinns: supernatural beings believed to be created from fire. According to Islamic sources, “Jinn, as psychic beings, unseen to most humans, occupy an intermediate state between the material realm of our physical experiences and the angelic and spiritual realms.”Footnote ⁴⁵

God sent Muhammad as a prophet not only to humans but also to jinns. Human beings and jinns are mentioned together in twenty different verses in Muslim scripture. Not only does the Qur’an repeatedly mention jinns, one of its chapters is even named after them.Footnote ⁴⁶ The chapter relates an occasion when a group of jinns sat with humans listening to the Prophet Muhammad recite the Qur’an. The jinns were awed by the divine words. The Mosque of the Jinn in Mecca takes its name from that event. The Qur’an also points to the prophet Solomon’s relationship with the jinns in his service. Unlike angels, jinns can choose freely to become believers or disbelievers. In this regard, there can be good jinns and bad jinns.

Satan among the Jinns

Muslims believe that Satan is a jinn. The Qur’an refers to Satan as Iblis, the first jinn God created. Because of his piety and surrender to God, Iblis was initially part of a group of angels, though he was not an angel himself. According to the Qur’an, when God told the angels that he would create a human on earth, their concerned response was, “Will you place someone there who will cause harm and bloodshed, while we glorify you with praises and thanks?”Footnote ⁴⁷ God responded, “I know what you do not know,” and proceeded to create Adam, whom God taught his most beautiful names (asma al-husna).Footnote ⁴⁸ He then asked the angels, including Satan, to prostrate before Adam. Everyone did so except Satan.Footnote ⁴⁹

When God asked Satan why he refused to obey, Satan reasoned that Adam was created from clay, while he was created from fire. Satan argued that he was superior to Adam and was therefore unwilling to prostrate before him. (For this reason, some Muslim scholars consider Satan to be the first bigot.) As a consequence, he was cursed and banished from heaven. Satan then made it his mission to tempt people away from the divine path. God granted him the freedom to do so while stressing that pious humans would be able to resist such deception.

Satan represents evil. However, neither jinns nor Satan has power over humans. In the Qur’an, Satan’s tactics are described as weak.Footnote ⁵⁰ Yet as noted in one of the hadiths, “Satan circulates inside the human similar to the blood in the veins.”Footnote ⁵¹ He is always nearby and can have an influence on those who rely on him.Footnote ⁵²

Satan is not a power or entity in the universe independent of God’s creative agency. Satan is a creature, not a creator. God gave him the freedom to test believers in this world.Footnote ⁵³ But humans can spiritually and morally thrive through the temptations and challenges of Satan – and even rise to a higher level than angels.

Human Nature

The nature of angels and jinns can be clarified by contrasting it with Islamic theology’s view of human nature. Humans were created from clay and came into existence after they were equipped with a divine spirit. The Qur’an says that God first created humans from clay and fashioned their descendants from semen, an extract of humble fluid. He shaped them and breathed his spirit into them. He then gave them hearing, sight, and thought.Footnote ⁵⁴ The exact nature of the spirit (ruh) is ultimately unknowable; humans have only a limited knowledge of it.Footnote ⁵⁵

The combination of both spirit and clay is known as soul. Once the spirit merges with the body, the human self (nafs) comes into existence. The soul tends to forget its nature and the reality that it “does not reside in the body but in the spirit and in God.”Footnote ⁵⁶ In this regard, the word nafs has a negative connotation in Islamic literature: “It refers to all the darkness within people that keeps them wandering in ignorance and distance from God.”Footnote ⁵⁷

Unlike angels, humans are granted free will; they can choose to obey or disobey God, who is constantly testing them. The Qur’an mentions that humans were created with dignity “in the most beautiful state.”Footnote ⁵⁸ But because of their freedom of choice, they can also descend to “the lowest of the low.”Footnote ⁵⁹ Compared to angels and jinns, humans have more limitations due to their nature.

Islamic theology emphasizes human weakness. Being aware of one’s inherent weakness leads to a full reliance on God and is an essential step toward becoming a servant of God, who is beyond all weakness. Recognition of human impotence is thus a fundamental means by which the believer is led to explore God’s attributes – to come to know God as the almighty, the most merciful, and the most generous.Footnote ⁶⁰ Without understanding their own powerlessness, God remains unknown to humans.

Humans are mirrors of God’s attributes, but they must be aware of their limits in relation to God. Awareness of these polar opposites – the unlimited weakness of humans and the unlimited power of God – provides insight into God’s power, richness, and glory.Footnote ⁶¹ As part of their created nature, humans are dependent.Footnote ⁶² Being aware of this disposition brings one closer to God. Without the boundless spiritual poverty of humans, one cannot understand the boundless richness of God.Footnote ⁶³

The Qur’an and hadiths not only refer to humans’ weakness and the fact that they are in need but also allude to their longing for eternity and attachment to wealth. The Qur’an points out that humans are often “excessive in their love of wealth” and think their possessions will help them live forever.Footnote ⁶⁴ Therefore, the Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes that everything will perish except that which is turned toward God.Footnote ⁶⁵ What is done according to the will of God can remain permanent. Humans are asked to be grateful for what they have been given. Being superior in the eyes of God is related not to wealth, rank, color, or race but to piety. Thus the superiority of humans to angels is a function of divine wisdom, not power or prestige.

As God created humans to choose freely to worship him, so he created angels and jinns to worship and glorify him by the necessity of their nature. Despite the fact that modernity and science have caused a decline in the belief in angels, this belief remains a key component of Islamic theology.

According to Islamic theology, God is the creator and the owner of the universe. The creation is the manifestation of his names. It reveals God’s beauty, perfection, and power. God also created beings in the universe who can admire and appreciate his creations. Among them are angels, jinns, and humans. Their ideal response will lead them to love and worship God. The revelation of God’s names in the world requires diversity in creation, which includes natural evil.

California had a record-breaking fire in 2020. By the end of the year, almost 4 percent of its land had burned. Experts highlighted a number of reasons for the devastating fire. Among them were drought and increased warming due to climate change. As a response to the fire and drought, a number of Muslim organizations in California – including Zaytuna College, the South Bay Islamic Association, the Evergreen Islamic Center, and the Islamic Center of Livermore – organized a prayer for rain. The person who was invited to give a sermon and offer a prayer was Hamza Yusuf Hanson, cofounder and president of Zaytuna College, the first accredited Muslim liberal arts college in the United States. In his sermon, Hanson highlighted that this world is a place of tribulations, difficulties, grief, and sorrow. Whatever comes from God is pure grace. People should respond to calamities with gratitude. God created humans to test them. But God also says in the Qur’an that if people turn to him with repentance (tawba), then God will send them what is good.Footnote ¹ People sin, but when they face their sin’s outcome, they don’t take responsibility. Hanson made a reference to one of the principles that is often stressed in the Qur’an: “Each soul is accountable for what evil it commits, and no soul shall bear the burden of another.”Footnote ² He pointed out that the implication of this verse is in the hereafter. People suffer because of other people’s irresponsibility in this world. God tests people collectively, and that is why innocents such as children and animals suffer during tribulations. However, these misfortunes are an opportunity to turn toward God with repentance and ask for forgiveness. Hanson concluded his sermon with prayer and a supplication of repentance.Footnote ³ A number of imams in California also organized a prayer for rain with their communities.

The Muslim community’s response to the lack of rain in California is not a new tradition. It is part of a practice that dates to the Prophet Muhammad. In times of drought, Muhammad would often offer a prayer for rain (salat al-istisqa) and encourage his followers to do the same.Footnote ⁴ The implication of this prayer is that everything is in God’s control, and he has power over nature. Therefore, God is the one who can send the rain. This approach to drought manifests an Islamic theological perspective on natural evil.

Natural evil remains a major challenge to the traditional view of God. Every day, about 150,000 people die. Among the leading causes of these deaths are cardiovascular diseases (48,742), cancers (26,181), respiratory diseases (10,724), and neonatal disorders (4,887).Footnote ⁵ In 2017, around 56 million people died. Approximately half of them were aged seventy years or older, 27 percent were aged fifty to sixty-nine years, 14 percent were aged fifteen to forty-nine years, only 1 percent were aged five to fourteen years, and around 10 percent were under the age of five.Footnote ⁶ In 2019, an estimated 5.2 million children under five years old died. Many of these deaths were due to birth complications.Footnote ⁷ According to some estimates, every year, nearly 300,000 women die in childbirth,Footnote ⁸ and around 60,000 people die because of natural disasters.Footnote ⁹ I should also mention animal suffering. For example, it is believed that over three billion animals were killed or displaced during Australia’s devastating bushfires from June 2019 to February 2020. It was one of the worst wildlife disasters in modern history.Footnote ¹⁰

These examples show that there is immense suffering that is associated with natural evil. According to Islamic theology, God is the sole creator and owner of the universe. There is nothing outside of his power and knowledge. He is merciful and compassionate. If this is the case, how do Muslim theologians reconcile natural evil with the existence of God? In this chapter, I explore their perspectives on natural evil and suffering.

The key term in Islamic literature concerning evil is sharr, and its opposite is khayr (good). As a term, sharr means something that is disliked, the spread of what is harmful, something that is incompatible with one’s nature. The Qur’an employs the word in various ways. In some cases, sharr is described as what is impermissible and sinful. It also implies that people may not completely know what is evil and what is good.Footnote ¹¹ The Qur’an uses other words that are associated with evil and suffering. Among them are trial (musiba), injustice (zulm), harm (darra), indecency (fahsha), misery (shaqawa), moral corruption (fasad), ill (su’), grief (huzn), sin (sayyia), and pain (alam). Muslim theologians offer a number of theodicies for natural evil. One of them is to emphasize God’s power and full authority over creation.

God and the Creation of Natural Evil

The Qur’an points out that God is the creator and has power over everything: “Blessed is He in whose hands lies sovereignty, and he has power over all things. Everything in the heavens and earth belongs to God.”Footnote ¹² The Qur’an also mentions that God does what he wills:

In another verse, the Qur’an reads: “If God afflicts you with misfortune, no one can remove it but Him, and if He intends good for you, no one can repel His grace. He grants it to whom He pleases of His servants; and He is the Forgiving, the Merciful.”Footnote ¹⁴ The Islamic scripture also implies that God is the creator of natural disasters such as drought, famine, and earthquakes: “We inflicted Pharaoh’s people with famine and shortage of crops, so that they might take heed. No misfortune can happen, either in the earth or in yourselves, that was not set down in writing before We brought it into being, that is easy for God.”Footnote ¹⁵

The Mutazilites, a theological school that emphasizes reason (‘aql), argue that justice is at the center of God’s creation, including natural disasters. That is why the Mutazilites do not believe that there is evil in God’s creation. Mutazilite scholars argue that God only creates what is the most useful and beneficial for the people (the doctrine of al-aslah). For them, in order to understand whether an act is evil or good, one must determine whether it is harmful or advantageous for people. God always creates with purpose, and there is no waste in his creation.Footnote ¹⁶ Otherwise, one may think that God is involved in unnecessary creation and indifferent to injustice. Therefore, the Mutazilites point out that it is incumbent on God (aslah ‘ala Allah) to create with justice and purpose. For them, God is the creator of natural disasters and illnesses, but these things are not evil in reality. The creation of evil is inconsistent with God’s justice.

Unlike the Mutazilites, the Asharites, a theological school that emphasizes the authority of revelation over reason, believe that God is not obligated to create with justice or according to the advantages of people. They highlight God’s power (qudrah). The Ashari school, which became the mainstream school in the Sunni tradition, argues that everything belongs to God. God acts the way he wills, and one cannot seek wisdom in or benefit from God’s actions. They support their points with passages from the Qur’an:

With these references, the Asharites point out that God’s acts are not driven by what benefits people.

For the Asharites, natural evil and the suffering that results from it cannot be considered harmful or disadvantageous. In this situation, what matters is not people’s perspective but rather how God sees it. God is not obliged to create with wisdom, as this limits God’s eternal power. To counter the Mutazilite position, Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari (d. 936) brought up the case of the three brothers (al-ikhwah al-thalathah) and their salvation in the hereafter. The first brother is Muslim, the second brother is an unbeliever, and the third brother died when he was a child. When asked what would become of the brothers when they died, the Mutazilite scholar Abu Ali al-Jubbai (d. 915) answered that the first brother would enter heaven and the second would go to hell. While the third brother would not be punished, he would not enter heaven either. Al-Ashari then asked what would happen if the third brother would say, “Oh God, if you would give me more life to live, I would have faith in you, obey you to enter heaven. You should have done what is the most useful for me.” The Mutazilite scholar answered that God created what is the most appropriate for the child, because if he lived, he would rebel against God and would go to hell. Al-Ashari declared that this answer is unjust to the second brother, who died as an unbeliever, and inconsistent with God’s justice. Because the second brother could ask, “Oh God, why did not you take my life when I was a child, I would not rebel against you and deserve to go to hell?”Footnote ¹⁸

The Maturidi school offers a middle way concerning God’s creation and natural evil. They emphasize God’s wisdom (hikmah). There is nothing that is inappropriate and unnecessary in God’s creation. Wisdom in the universe is the manifestation of God’s name All Wise (al-Hakim). In this regard, there is no imperfection in God’s creation. They still disagree with the Mutazilites’ approach that God creates what is the most beneficial to people. The Maturidis contest that something that is considered evil (fasad) from our perspective might not be evil in God’s wisdom. For example, God creates those who are disobedient to him and provides them with what they need. While this seems to be inconsistent with the doctrine of al-aslah, it might be compatible with God’s wisdom. Therefore, God’s justice cannot be held to the standard of people’s reason and their understanding of justice. While we do not have the right to say that God is obligated to create with justice and according to what benefits people, we can say that God creates with wisdom. People may not be able to see the wisdom in God’s creation, but it does not mean that there is no wisdom.

The Maturidis provided arguments against the doctrine of al-aslah from the Qur’an. First, a number of verses encourage believers to pray and seek refuge in God. For them, if one accepts the Mutazilites’ position, then there is no need to pray, be thankful, and seek refuge in God. According to their view, God has already given people everything they need. If this is the case, people are seeking God’s help for two reasons: to ask for something that they do not need or to hide a blessing that God already gave them. This is nothing but being ungrateful. Second, the Qur’an indicates that “God is the Protector of those who believe: He brings them out of the darkness and into the light. As for the disbelievers, their protectors are false gods who take them from the light into the darkness. Those are the inhabitants of the Fire, and there they will remain forever.”Footnote ¹⁹ In this case, both believers and nonbelievers have the same conditions. However, God favors the believers and brings them out of the darkness. For the Maturidis, this verse contradicts the idea of al-aslah, because God should be an ally to the nonbelievers too. Third, the Qur’an points out that “those who disbelieve should not think that the time We give them is good for them. In fact, we give them time only that they may increase in sin, and there is a humiliating punishment for them.”Footnote ²⁰ Again, if the Mutazilites’ position is correct, then God would not give more time to disbelievers to be more sinful, because this is not something that benefits them. Fourth, the Qur’an reads: “So let neither their wealth nor their children impress you. Through these God plans to punish them in this world, and that their souls should depart while they are disbelievers.”Footnote ²¹ If God gives people only things that benefit them, how can one explain this verse? Because it implies that what God bestows on people is something that is working against them?Footnote ²²

Innocent Suffering

One of the challenges that the first two schools had to address was the suffering of innocents because of natural evil. For the Ashari school, while God will eventually reward those who die in the hereafter, they also believe that God does not have to do so. The reward is part of God’s grace. Said Nursi (d. 1960), for example, points out that innocent people who die because of natural evil such as earthquakes will be considered martyrs, and their temporary life will turn into an eternal one. Their properties will be considered as charity (sadaqa) that will benefit them eternally.Footnote ²³ There is divine mercy within their suffering. This world is a place of trial and examination. If the innocents were spared during natural disasters such as earthquakes, then everyone would turn to God. People would not have the opportunity to explore their spiritual and moral progress to the fullest extent. There would not be any difference between Abu Jahl and Abu Bakr. Abu Jahl is a figure who represents evil in Islamic literature because of his disobedience to God. He was the leading person who persecuted the Prophet Muhammad and his followers. Unlike Abu Jahl, Abu Bakr is known for his obedience to God and was one of the most loyal companions of the Prophet. He is known for his goodness and generosity in the tradition.Footnote ²⁴ Nursi turns to the Qur’an for this position: “Be mindful of a trial that will not affect only the wrongdoers among you.”Footnote ²⁵ In his interpretation of the same verse, al-Qurtubi (d. 1273) points to a hadith in which the Prophet uses the parable of a ship to explain the suffering of innocent people. On this ship, while some people are above deck, the others are below. If those on the lower deck in need of water would make a hole in the bottom of the ship instead of asking from those who are on the upper deck, the whole ship would sink. When people live in a community, “doing wrong and allowing wrong” will affect all members, both wrongdoers and innocents.Footnote ²⁶

The Mutazilites point out that there are lessons for people to learn from the innocents’ suffering. While the innocents would be rewarded (‘iwad) with eternal bliss, it is a test for their parents. The ideal response of the parents is to interpret the death of their children as ultimately good. Zayn al-Din ibn ‘Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad (d. 1557) was a Mutazilite scholar of Twelver Shiism. He went through considerable suffering in his life. Among his sons, only one reached adulthood; another died in infancy. He also wrote a treatise on the death of his son. Like the scholars of the Mutazilite school, Zayn al-Din highlights the innocents’ compensation in the hereafter. He also points out that there is even a reward for the suffering parents who lose their children. The children will, for example, intercede for their parents’ salvation in the hereafter. The parents will be forgiven of their sins because of their suffering. In addition, the parents are not shamed and disappointed because of a child who grows up to have a sinful life. God tests his servants with loss so that they can learn to be patient and have the merits of an eternal life.Footnote ²⁷

Suffering for purification from sin and the merits of an eternal life are echoed in a number of hadiths. The Prophet, for example, says that even a minor thing, including the pricking of a thorn, will be compensated and that God will forgive or wipe out one’s sin through suffering: “No fatigue, nor disease, nor sorrow, nor sadness, nor hurt, nor distress befalls a Muslim, even if it were the prick he receives from a thorn, but that God expiates some of his sins for that.”Footnote ²⁸ Aisha, one of the Prophet’s wives, states that if a believer is very sinful and does not perform enough good deeds to wipe these sins out, then God will afflict the person with suffering in order to forgive their sin.Footnote ²⁹ This approach is very similar to Jewish theologian Saadia Gaon’s view. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Gaon explains that God inflicts those whom he loves with unmerited suffering in order to justify their eternal reward in the hereafter.Footnote ³⁰

Animal Suffering

Another pressing question that concerns Muslim theologians is the suffering of animals. In a number of hadiths, the Prophet Muhammad addresses animal suffering. It is also reported that Muhammad miraculously communicated with animals. In one case, a camel complained to the Prophet about being mistreated by its owner. Muhammad warned the owner and asked him to improve the situation of the camel. The Qur’an mentions that sentient beings will be resurrected on the day of judgment: “There is no creature living on the earth, nor a bird flying on its two wings, but they all are communities like you. We have missed nothing in the Book. Then to their Lord they will be gathered.”Footnote ³¹ In line with this Qur’anic position, a hadith mentions that animals will be compensated for the suffering and injustice they experience: “On the Day of Arising, all of creation will be gathered together: the cattle, the riding-beasts, the birds, and every other thing, and it shall be by God’s justice that He takes the hornless sheep’s case against the horned one. Then He shall say, ‘Be dust.’”Footnote ³² According to the Mutazilites, God has an “ethical obligation” to compensate animals for their suffering. For the Asharites, however, it is inappropriate to attribute “obligation” to God. For them, “God is expected to recompense animals for their innocent suffering but will do so out of His generosity and wisdom, not because universal moral axioms compel Him to do so.”Footnote ³³ Despite their disagreements, all theological schools believe that there will be compensation for the suffering of animals.

Natural Evil as the Manifestation of God’s Names

As mentioned in Chapter 2, believers may know God through his names, which are manifested in his creation. The manifestation of God’s names requires unlimited changes, transformations, and alterations in the universe that “necessitate death and extinction, decline and separation.”Footnote ³⁴ Natural disasters can be considered as part of the manifestations of God’s names. According to Nursi, this world has three faces. The first face mirrors the divine names. Death, separation, and nonexistence cannot be part of this dimension, which reveals the names through transformation and change. The second face is related to the hereafter. Everything in this world serves as a means for eternal life. From this perspective, death and separation will eventually lead to life and eternity. The third face looks to transient beings, including humans. People are attached to ephemeral beings. Their attachment may lead to pain and suffering. If people look at this dimension of the world from the perspective of the divine names, they will see that it also manifests life and eternity. Nursi concludes that transformation and renewal, including human and animal suffering, are manifestations of God’s names.Footnote ³⁵

Evil Is the Privation of Good

Like many Christian theologians, Muslim scholars also point out that evil is the privation of good. Because God is perfect and beautiful, only good comes from him. The beings in the material world are limited because of their nature. Evil is the lack of good. It does not have a source, as God is the source of creation. Light, existence, and mercy come from God. Evil cannot come from him, as it is nonexistence.Footnote ³⁶

To make their point, these scholars classify the natural evil that exists in the world into two categories: essential evil (sharr bidh-dhāt) and accidental evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ). Mulla Sadra (d. 1636), for example, argues that essential evil does not exist in the world, as it is the lack of good. Accidental evil is the result of creatures’ relations with one another. For example, cold and warm are not evil in their nature; however, they can be harmful in relation to creation. Fruits may decay because of the temperature is inappropriate; however, that does not make cold and warm evil in nature. Another example is clouds. They are not evil in nature; however, if they block the sunlight, then they cause harm when a fruit tree cannot grow. Clouds may cause evil in relation to the sun.Footnote ³⁷

Goodness Dominates the World

Muslim scholars also state that evil that exists in the world is minor, and overall, goodness dominates the world. The Qur’an points out that God created everything with perfection.Footnote ³⁸ The evil that exists is necessary and has benefits for creation. For this view, Ibn Sina (d. 1037) gives the example of fire. There is no doubt that the creation of fire is good and benefits people. However, when fire touches things, it may cause pain and suffering. This does not make fire evil, as the minor harm that is associated with fire is necessary for its creation.Footnote ³⁹ In this regard, the existence of fire is far better than its nonexistence.

Concerning evil and goodness, the scholars also point out that one cannot abandon the greater good for the lesser evil. To support this point, al-Ghazali (d. 1111) gives the example of a cancerous hand. In order to keep the body healthy, one may justify the amputation of a cancerous hand. While the amputation may sound evil, there is a greater good behind it: keeping the body healthy.Footnote ⁴⁰ A similar example comes from Nursi:

The point is that while eighty of the eggs were lost, incubation itself is not evil. The quantity is not relevant either. The gain is much higher compared to what is lost. The greater good cannot be abandoned for the lesser evil.

Evil Reveals What Is Good

Muslim scholars also underline that our notions of good and beauty will remain incomplete and static without evil. It is through evil and suffering that one can experience various degrees of goodness and beauty in the world. Good and evil often come together. For this view, Rumi (d. 1273) gives a number of examples: “Ruined the house for the sake of the golden treasure, and with that same treasure builds it better (than before); cut off the water and cleansed the river-bed, then caused drinking-water to flow in the river-bed; cleft the skin and drew out the iron point (of the arrow or spear) – then fresh skin grew over it (the wound).”Footnote ⁴² Rumi then concludes that the divine action is manifested in opposites and this is its nature.

Rumi gives other examples concerning the problem of evil. He notes that even if evil comes from God, still there is no imperfection in his creation. Creating evil is also part of God’s perfection. To support his argument, Rumi describes a painter who created two pictures: one with a beautiful woman and the prophet Joseph and another with Satan. Both pictures reveal the painter’s art. The evil in the picture also demonstrates the artist’s skills. If painters are unable to draw evil things as well as good things, that shows a lack of talent. Rumi then states that evil and good in the universe are similar to this analogy. They are part of God’s creation. Both illness and death are part of God’s art.Footnote ⁴³ Rumi also points out that there is no teacher without a student seeking knowledge. There is no doctor without a sick person seeking treatment. The existence of a doctor depends on the sickness of people. However, this does not mean that the doctor wills people’s sickness or the teacher desires students’ ignorance.Footnote ⁴⁴ Al-Ghazali offers similar reasoning: “As long as the imperfect is not created, the perfect will remain unknown. If beasts had not been created, the dignity of man would not be manifest. The perfect and the imperfect are correlated. Divine generosity and wisdom require the simultaneous creation of the perfect and the imperfect.”Footnote ⁴⁵

The Best Possible World

The “this world is the best possible world” approach is another response to natural evil. In Islamic theology, this view was articulated by al-Ghazali. He argues that this is the best possible world created by God, and another possible world would be impossible (laysa fi’l-imkan abda’ mimma kan).Footnote ⁴⁶ Al-Ghazali maintains that even if all people’s minds were put together and their intelligence was increased to the highest level, nothing would change in God’s creation, as it is the best possible creation. They would eventually come to the conclusion that there is no injustice in God’s creation because God creates with wisdom and measure. To support his view, al-Ghazali points to the measured creation even in the case of ordinary creatures: “Even if we wished to mention the marvels in a bedbug, an ant, a bee or a spider – for these are the tiniest animals – in the way they construct their dwellings, gather their food, consort with their mates and store provisions, … we would be unable to do so.”Footnote ⁴⁷ He also illustrates the human body as the best form of creation. If we think of the way our eyes, nose, skin, and fingernails are created, the way they are placed on our body, their functions, and so on, there could not be a better possibility.Footnote ⁴⁸ In the case of the eyes, al-Ghazali wrote, “[God] placed the eye in the place in the body most fitting for it. Had He created it on the back of the head or on the leg or on the hand or on top of the head, it would be obvious what shortcoming would befall it, and what exposure to injuries.”Footnote ⁴⁹ Al-Ghazali then concludes that if there would be a better world, this would be against God’s power and would be a sign of divine weakness.

Al-Ghazali’s position is also supported by Ibn Arabi (d. 1240). Ibn Arabi reasons that the universe is the manifestation of God. The existence of the universe becomes a means of knowing God. Therefore, the universe is beautiful and perfect. It is the mirror of God’s beauty and perfection.Footnote ⁵⁰ Ibn Arabi also points to a hadith of the Prophet: “God is beautiful and he loves beauty.” If God is beautiful, that means the reflection of his beauty, all creation, is also beautiful and perfect.Footnote ⁵¹

Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1311) also maintains al-Ghazali’s position. He notes that if there were the possibility of creating a better world and God did not create it, that means God is not omniscient or omnipotent. The other possibility is that God is not generous. However, these attributes cannot be associated with God.Footnote ⁵²

In support of al-Ghazali’s best possible world, some scholars also challenge the idea of a world with pure good or without evil. Mulla Sadra, for example, entertains the possibility with some counterarguments. In order to have a world without evil, Mulla Sadra offers the following options:

1. a. God would not create this world.

2. b. God would create the natural world with a nonmaterial nature.

3. c. God would create this world without the basic attributes.

For the first option to occur, God would forsake and abandon many goods. This itself is evil and inconsistent with God’s generosity. For the second option to be true, the creatures would be part of a nonmaterial world. In the case of the third option, God would create things without their natural attributes. For example, God would create fire, but it would not have its attribute of burning. This is not possible either.Footnote ⁵³

Al-Ghazali’s idea has been criticized by a number of scholars. Their major criticism is that this position puts a limit on God. Al-Biqai (d. 1480), for example, points out that there is considerable suffering in this world. There are people who are born with disabilities; people can potentially hate and commit evils. How can one say there could not be a better world? God could create everyone as a prophet, and we could enjoy our heaven in this world in which there would be no death.Footnote ⁵⁴ Another Muslim theologian, Ibn al-Munayyir (d. 1284), also challenges al-Ghazali’s position. Concerning the best possible world, al-Munayyir points out that there are many people with disabilities. If the point of imperfections in this world is to know and understand what is perfect, God could just create one individual with imperfection, and this would be sufficient for us to understand God’s perfection. However, the number of beings with imperfections exceeds the number of those with perfection.Footnote ⁵⁵ Al-Ghazali’s view was also criticized because it had some similarities with the Mutazilite doctrine of al-aslah.Footnote ⁵⁶

What Appears to Be Evil May Not Be Evil in Reality

Muslim scholars also discuss evil as something that may eventually turn out to be good even if people do not grasp it in the first place. In this context, the following verse of the Qur’an is often used as an argument: “It may be that you hate something while it is good for you, and it may be that you love something while it is evil for you.”Footnote ⁵⁷ Here the Qur’an lays out a principle: What is good cannot be based on what you like. What you like may turn out to be evil, and what you dislike might turn out to be good for you. This approach can be found in the Prophet Muhammad’s life, as he often prayed, “Oh God, if it is good for my life in this world and the hereafter then bestow upon me.”Footnote ⁵⁸ Here the Prophet asks God not for what he likes or dislikes but rather what is eventually good for him.

Rumi mentions that creation cannot be based on our own desires or what we like or dislike. Depending on the context, what is poisonous for one might be a cure for another. He gives the example of a venomous snake. While venom is part of the snake’s life, it is lethal for people. While for the animals living in the water, the sea is heaven, for the animals living outside of the sea, it is a form of suffering and death.Footnote ⁵⁹

Natural Evil as a Test and Warning for the People

Based on some of the verses from the Qur’an, Muslim scholars also look at natural evil as a test and warning from God. A number of verses are often cited to support this view:

In the face of natural evil and suffering, Muslim scholars often emphasize this world as a place of test, not reward. The Qur’an also mentions that people will face trials and tribulations because of their sin and heedlessness: “Whatever misfortune befalls you, it is because of what your own hands have done, God pardons much.”Footnote ⁶⁴ In the Qur’an as in the Bible, this approach is best manifested in the stories of the prophets. Among them are Noah, Moses, and Hud. Their people are often punished through natural disasters as a result of their sin and disobedience.Footnote ⁶⁵

Spiritual Responses to Natural Evil

There is enormous pain and suffering associated with natural evil. In the face of natural evil, Islamic tradition underscores a number of spiritual responses. One of them is tawakkul: trust in divine providence. People going through suffering do everything in their power to overcome the consequences of natural evil and then put their trust in God. This spiritual response is often explained through one of the traditions. It is reported that the Prophet noticed that one of his companions was leaving his camel without tying it. When the Prophet asked him why he did not tie it, the companion answered that he put his trust in God. The Prophet responded that the man should first tie his camel, then put his trust in God.Footnote ⁶⁶ Tawakkul is to believe that God is the creator and in control of everything.

In the midst of pain and suffering, the idea is to turn to God, as he loves when people ask for his help. The Qur’an points out that God answers the prayers of those who seek refuge in him with humility.Footnote ⁶⁷

Times of trials and tribulations due to evil and suffering are also times for worship and prayer. For example, the lack of rain is considered an opportunity to worship and pray to God.Footnote ⁶⁸ That is why the prayer for rain does not simply ask God for rain; it is an occasion to turn to God. Nuh Ha Mim Keller points to this aspect of the trials as follows: “If not for the problems, fears, and pain man faces, he would remain turned away from the door of the divine generosity, and miss an enormous share of worship that benefits him in this world and the next.”Footnote ⁶⁹

Another spiritual response is patience (sabr). The Quran often points out that patience is one of the traits of believers. It indicates that those who respond to suffering and evil with patience and turn to God will be rewarded.

In this chapter, I have demonstrated that while Muslim theologians have different approaches to natural evil and offer different theodicies, they all believe that God is the sole agent in the creation of natural evil. They highlight different attributes of God in relation to natural evil. The Islamic approach to evil and suffering is succinctly articulated by Erzurumlu İbrahim Hakkı (d. 1780), a Sufi poet and philosopher. I conclude this chapter with his lines:

On February 10, 2015, Deah Barakat, his wife, Yusor Abu-Salha, and his sister-in-law, Razan Abu-Salha, were brutally murdered by a neighbor in their Chapel Hill, North Carolina home. All three were students and involved in charity work. Deah was a second-year student at the University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Dentistry. Yusor had just finished her degree at North Carolina State University (NCSU) and had been accepted to the same school as Deah. Razan was an undergraduate majoring in architecture at NCSU. Their families believed their children had been the victims of a hate crime and that the perpetrator was motivated by his animosity toward Muslims. In June 2019, the perpetrator pleaded guilty to three counts of first-degree murder and was sentenced to three consecutive life terms without the possibility of parole. While the families of the victims did everything in their power to bring the murderer to justice, they also found comfort in their faith. Deah’s brother recited two verses from the Qur’an in his court statement:

Deah’s mother remarked that what had happened to her son was an ugly crime, but she also said:

Echoing her brother and mother, Deah’s sister pointed out that while nothing could make up for her family’s loss, much good had come out of their tragedy. NCSU established a scholarship in their honor. The UNC School of Dentistry created an annual “Deah Day” dedicated to their memory. Every year on that day, the students of the school do community service to honor Deah’s and Yusor’s charity work. In addition, students raised $500,000 that created an endowment for a refugee project Deah and Yusor were working on.Footnote ³ This case exemplifies the Muslim understanding of predestination, good, moral evil, and suffering.

Perhaps no theological issue in the world’s religions has been more contentious than the question of predestination and its relation to the role of God in human actions and to the problem of evil and suffering. God is known as all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-benevolent, especially in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. If God predestines people to have certain fates, then how can they be accountable for their actions in this world and in the hereafter? If God is all-powerful, do humans have free will? If God is omniscient and already knows what people will do, how can they be tested by God? If God is all-benevolent, why does he not intervene, especially when innocent people face injustice and suffering? Like members of other religious traditions, Muslims have also been dealing with these questions.

In this chapter, we explore predestination, freedom, and moral evil in Islamic theology. We first engage with some verses in the Qur’an and then look at different theological views concerning the notion of predestination. Finally, we explore the issue from the perspective of the divine names of God. The last section offers various ways of finding meaning in good and bad events. Before we turn to the notion of predestination in Islam, however, it is important to note that some Muslim scholars prefer the expression measuring out, as they believe this better captures the Islamic approach to human action in relation to God than the word predestination.Footnote ⁴

Belief in predestination is the sixth and final article of faith in Islam. The tradition first establishes the other articles of faith and then builds the belief in predestination on them, as it is one of the most difficult areas in Islamic theology. In one of the hadiths, the Prophet emphasized not only the belief in “measuring out” but also “the good and the bad side of it.” Human beings, as such, will experience good and evil in this world. However, they should always maintain faith that both good and evil come from God. Whether what reaches them is benefit or loss, they are to accept it with thankfulness and have hope in God’s mercy.Footnote ⁵

The two most common concepts that appear in Islamic theology in the context of predestination are qadar and qada. The word qadar (literally, “power”) comes from the Arabic root q-d-r, which means “to decide,” “measure out,” or “judge.” But as a term, it generally means that God knows everything in the past and future through his eternal knowledge. He is all-knowing, and nothing exists outside of his knowledge. The word qada means “to execute,” “create,” or “fulfill.” Put simply, qada is the execution of qadar. According to qadar, God knows and has written down everything that will occur. Through qada, God creates and ordains what is in the qadar. Sometimes, these two concepts are used interchangeably. In emphasizing God’s power over creation, phrases such as “Ma sha Allah” (what God wills), “In sha Allah” (God willing), and “La hawla wa la kuwwata illa billah” (there is no might nor power except in God) have become part of the daily language of Muslims around the world.

Measuring Out in the Qur’an

The Qur’an emphasizes that God creates with measure: “We have created all things in proportion and measure. We have treasures of everything. We send it down only in well-known measure.”Footnote ⁶ The Qur’an also stresses that there is nothing outside of God’s knowledge: “With Him are the keys of unseen: None but He knows them. He knows all that is in the land and sea. No leaf falls without His knowledge, nor is there a single grain in the darkness of the earth, or anything, fresh or dry, that is not written in a clear Record.”Footnote ⁷ The prophet Abraham’s supplication in the Qur’an depicts God’s involvement in people’s lives: “[God is] who created me. It is He who guides me; He who gives me food and drink; He who cures me when I am ill; He who will cause me to die and then bring me to life again.”Footnote ⁸

Theological Schools on Measuring Out

If God knows everything and is in control of everything, what role do humans play in their actions, whether good or bad? Islamic theological schools have taken three main positions on freedom and predestination.

First, based on various Qur’anic verses and hadiths, some Muslim theologians have argued that every human action is predetermined, and thus humans have no power over what they do. Human beings do not have free will either. Like leaves in a strong wind, they cannot control their actions. This approach was represented by a theological school known as Jabriya, whose first representative was Jahm bin Safwan (d. 745). In addition to believing that all human activities are predestined, adherents of this school argued that if humans were the creators of their movements, then they would be able to create in the same way as God. However, only God can create, and humans are only the products of creation. Among God’s attributes is that he is all-knowing, and his knowledge is eternal. Everything then depends on his knowledge, and nothing can change.

The Jabriya approach had political implications, and it is therefore not surprising that others disagreed with this theological interpretation. Having the right answer for human actions in relation to God was important. In the civil wars during the Umayyad dynasty (661–750 ce), for example, many companions of the Prophet died at the hands of fellow Muslims. If human actions are foreordained, then believers must accept that Muslims who kill and are killed act as part of a plan foreordained by God. Other questions have revolved around what to make of the condition of someone who commits a major sin, especially a ruler. If humans are predestined to behave in a certain way and have no power over their actions, then believers should not revolt against the injustices of a ruler. Those who have argued in favor of this theological idea point to verses in the Qur’an to justify their positions:

When it was founded, the second school, Qadariya, disagreed with almost everything the Jabriya campaigned for. The Mutazilites later expanded on the Qadariya view, which emphasized human free will and power in relation to God. Unlike representatives of the Jabriya school, they argued that humans control their own actions, and their movements cannot be attributed to God. At the heart of this theological position is the question of justice in relation to God. Advocates of this school stress that humans are accountable because they enjoy freedom in their actions; they are the creators of what they do, whether good or bad, and they will eventually face punishment or reward for their choices. Attributing human acts to God is inconsistent with God’s justice and incompatible with the idea of the world as a testing place for humans.

The Mutazilites argued that if human actions are predestined, as the Jabriya maintained, then human accountability would seem pointless, and belief in a day of judgment would be unnecessary. Predestination implies that God forces certain actions on his creation. This would contradict the idea that God is just. The Mutazila school’s view of predestination has had political implications as well. According to their interpretation, rulers can be held accountable for their injustices, and their crimes and sins cannot be interpreted as divinely predestined. The Mutazila school was especially favored by the Abbasid dynasty (750–1258). Like the Jabriyas, they also justified their position through verses in the Qur’an: “Whoever does evil will be requited for it and will find no protector or helper apart from God. They said, ‘Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves: if You do not forgive us and have mercy, we shall certainly be lost.’ We showed him the way, whether he be grateful or ungrateful.”Footnote ¹⁰

A third position that offers a middle way was originally put forward by the Ashari and Maturidi, which later became the official theological schools of the Sunni, who today make up more than 80 percent of Muslims. The founders of both schools were initially members of the Mutazila school but later parted ways. They disagreed with the Mutazilites concerning their view of human actions. The Ashari and Maturidi explained their position through the doctrine of acquisition (kasb). While God was the creator of every action, humans were the ones who acquire them by choosing them of their free will. Therefore, humans are accountable for their actions. God wants humans to opt for good, but they have the freedom to choose evil. In this sense, humans are not the creators of their actions, but because they desire or wish for a particular action, God creates it.

The Asharite and Maturidi schools also distinguished between what is determined and what is known. In this regard, one should understand divine determining as a form of knowledge. According to Muslim scholar Colin Turner: “The knowledge of the knower depends on the thing which is known; the thing which is known is not, and cannot be, dependent on the knowledge of the knower.” For advocates of these schools, therefore, people’s actions are not determined according to God’s knowledge. Rather, because God is all-knowing, he foresees people’s will and choice. To elaborate this view, Turner provides the following example: “My knowledge that X is a thief is dependent on my having seen him steal, or on my having heard about his stealing from someone else; his being a thief is not, and cannot, be dependent on the fact that I know he has stolen something.” Turner then points out that this person is “a thief regardless of whether I know he is a thief, and the fact that I know he is a thief has no effect whatsoever on his having become a thief, his being a thief now or the continuation of his thieving in the future.” Likewise, Turner continues, what is known by God “does not depend for its existence on Divine knowledge: it is not God’s knowledge of a thing which brings it into existence, or effects changes in its existential status, it is God’s will in conjunction with His power.” He concludes that:

In this sense, the Asharite and Maturidi schools differed from the Mutazilites by emphasizing that humans are not the creators of their actions – God is. They also differed from the Jabriyas by noting that humans have free will when they choose to opt for what is good or what is evil.

Muslim theologians often turn to the following story to understand the positions of each theological school concerning predestination, human action, and God. Let’s imagine X fires a rifle, and because of this action, Y is wounded and dies. Here the question is raised: “Since Y’s death was determined by God to be at such-and-such a time, what was the fault of the man who fired the rifle through his own choice? For if he had not fired it, Y would still have died.”Footnote ¹² In addition:

According to the Jabriya, even if X had not fired the gun, Y would still have died. They believed people are not the creators of their own actions. The Mutazilites maintained that if X had not fired the gun, Y would not have died because people are the creators of their own actions. The Asharites and Maturidis argued that if X had not fired the rifle, we do not know whether Y would have died or not.Footnote ¹⁴

The Status of a Grave Sinner and Moral Evil

In the early years of Islam, Muslim theologians not only disagreed on the role of humans in their actions, they also argued about the fate of a believer who commits a mortal sin that is considered evil. Two major questions were at stake. What is grave sin (kabira)? What is the religious status of a grave sinner (murtakib al-kabira)?Footnote ¹⁵ While a consensus has not been reached on what is a mortal sin, some of the theologians maintained that an action that is clearly forbidden in Islam and requires punishment in this world as well as in the hereafter is viewed as a major sin. Among them are associating partners with God, theft, killing an innocent person, giving false testimony, and devouring the wealth of orphans.

The debate about the state of a grave sinner became an issue particularly during the civil wars following the death of Muhammad. A major event that sparked the controversy was the killing of Uthman bin Affan (r. 644–56), the third caliph and the Prophet’s son-in-law.Footnote ¹⁶ Those who killed him justified their act based on the argument that he was a sinner. The killing of Uthman would eventually lead to civil wars in the early Muslim community. Many of the companions of Muhammad and the members of his immediate family died in these conflicts, including Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–61), the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, who succeeded Uthman as the third caliph, as well as his grandson, Husayn (d. 680). In the fight, both sides were Muslims. They killed and were killed. As such, what would be their religious status? Muslim theologians offered different answers to this question.

The first group, known as the Kharijites (literally, the ones who leave), maintained that if mortal sinners would not repent, they would be considered as unbelievers (kafir) in this world as well as in the hereafter. They supported their argument with the verses from the Qur’an. One of them reads as follows: “But those who disobey God and His Messenger and transgress His limits will be admitted by God to a Fire, where they will remain forever and suffer a humiliating punishment.”Footnote ¹⁷ According to their understanding of the Qur’an, the Kharijites believed that a grave sinner should not be accepted as part of the Muslim community anymore.Footnote ¹⁸ Ali ibn Abi Talib was assassinated by a Kharijite with the accusation that he committed a grave sin by making an arbitration with his enemy during the second civil war. For them, Ali relied on his own opinion instead of relying on God’s judgment alone.

The second group, known as the Murjiites (literally, those who postpone), differed from the Kharijites in their interpretation. They maintained that sin does not make a Muslim an unbeliever. The Qur’an mentions that God forgives all the sins except associating partners with him.Footnote ¹⁹ For them, the matter of whether a mortal sinner remains a believer must be deferred to God in the hereafter. God will reveal the final word about their fate on the Day of Judgment.Footnote ²⁰

The third group, the Mutazilites, offered an in-between position. They argued that the grave sinners are neither believers nor unbelievers. They will remain in an intermediate state (al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn). If the grave sinners repent, they will become believers, otherwise they will die as unbelievers.

The Maturidi and Asharite scholars took a more positive approach toward a grave sinner. They distinguished between faith (iman) and actions (a‛mal). A person is in the state of faith when they believe that there is no god but God and the Prophet Muhammad is his messenger. Their actions, including murder, do not disqualify them from this state. In a number of verses, while the Qur’an offers retribution for Muslims involved in killing, it still refers to them as the believers. Their grave sin does not change their status as a believer.Footnote ²¹ Committing a grave sin is not because of a lack of faith; it is often about following one’s selfish desires.Footnote ²² Also, the Qur’an mentions that every action is counted: “Whoever does an atom’s weight of good will see it, and whoever does an atom’s weight of evil will see it.”Footnote ²³ It also teaches that the believers should never lose hope in God’s mercy even if they committed sin: “Say, ‘[God says], My servants who have transgressed against themselves, do not despair of God’s mercy. Surely, God forgives all sins. He is truly the Most Forgiving, the Most Merciful.”Footnote ²⁴ The responsibility of a believer is to avoid sin and seek refuge in God, otherwise, as pointed by Nursi, a continuous sinful condition may eventually dismantle the light of faith: “Sin, penetrating to the heart, will blacken and darken it until it extinguishes the light of belief. Within each sin is a path leading to unbelief. Unless that sin is swiftly obliterated by seeking God’s pardon, it will grow from a worm into a snake that gnaws on the heart.”Footnote ²⁵

Predestination in Relation to Good and Evil

In Islam, predestination is often discussed in relation to the problem of evil and suffering. The Qur’an frequently refers to the evil, suffering, and calamities that people experience, all of which are part of their trial and examination in this world. Qur’an 90:4 explicitly states that humans were created in suffering. The word in Arabic that points to the suffering of people in this verse is kabad. According to some Qur’an commentaries, kabad pertains to hardship, suffering, pain, trial, and distress.Footnote ²⁶ In other verses, the Qur’an specifies the forms of suffering and notes that God is testing people with “fear and hunger, and loss of wealth, lives, and crops.”Footnote ²⁷ The Qur’an also stresses human weakness and ignorance and indicates that because they possess inadequate knowledge, people cannot comprehend the wisdom behind their suffering and trials.Footnote ²⁸ According to the Qur’an, people may dislike something while it is good for them or like something while it is bad for them.Footnote ²⁹

The Islamic theological position on moral evil and suffering in relation to humans is well captured in a number of narratives in the Qur’an. The story of the prophet Moses and an unidentified man known as Khidr in Islamic literature is one of them.Footnote ³⁰ According to the Qur’an, God asked Moses who was the most knowledgeable among people. When Moses answered “Me,” God revealed that there was a person more knowledgeable than Moses at the place where two seas met. He told Moses to go there and find the servant of God, Khidr. After Moses found Khidr, he asked if he could accompany Khidr in order to acquire his knowledge. Khidr replied, “You would not be able to be patient with me while traveling.” When Moses assured him that he would be patient, Khidr responded, “How could you be patient in matters beyond your knowledge?”

Humbled, Moses answered, “God willing, you will find me patient. I will not disobey you in any matter.”Footnote ³¹

They agreed to travel together, but Khidr again advised Moses, “If you follow me then, do not question anything I do before I mention it to you myself.”

They set off for their venture. First, they took a boat. While on the boat, Khidr made a hole in it. Moses got frustrated and asked, “How could you make a hole in this boat? Do you want to drown its passengers? What a strange thing to do!” Khidr reminded him of their agreement that Moses needed to be patient. Moses apologized for his forgetfulness. Farther along in their journey, Khidr killed a young boy they encountered. Angrily, Moses said, “How could you kill an innocent person? He has not killed anyone! What a terrible thing you do.”

Khidr replied, “Did I not tell you that you would never be able to bear with me patiently?”

Moses responded, “From now on, if I question anything you do, banish me from your company.”

Their journey continued. Moses and Khidr arrived at a town and asked for food and hospitality from its inhabitants. They were refused. When Moses and Khidr were about to leave the town, they saw a ruined wall, and Khidr rebuilt it. Moses was disquieted and once again questioned Khidr’s motives. At this point, they parted ways. But before they took their departures, Khidr revealed to Moses the wisdom behind his actions.

In the first case, the boat was owned by some needy people who, with their earnings, were feeding their families. In the direction the boat was moving, there was a king who was seizing all solid boats. He would not, however, seize a boat that had a hole. In the second case, the young boy Khidr had killed would in later life have become a criminal and committed many atrocities. In the third case, the wall was owned by two orphans in the town, and a treasure for them was buried underneath it. He built the wall so that when the orphans reached maturity, they would own it.

Obviously, the acts committed by Khidr seemed horrifying and immoral – full of suffering, fear, and concern. But the story reflects the Qur’an’s approach to evil and suffering. In Moses, we see that humans are ignorant compared to God. Because their knowledge is limited, they are unable to understand the larger picture of the evil and suffering around them, reflecting the Qur’anic instruction: “What you see as evil might be good for you.”Footnote ³²

Another account is the story of Joseph. Although the Qur’an describes the narrative as one of the best stories, it is full of pain and sorrow. Joseph faced moral evil at the hands of his fellow humans, including his own brothers. His siblings believed that their father loved Joseph more than them, and they became jealous of him. The brothers initially planned to kill Joseph so that their father, Jacob, would pay more attention to them. However, the brothers eventually modified their plan and threw Joseph into a pit. A caravan that was passing by found Joseph and took him with them to Egypt. He was then sold into slavery, and a ranking official bought him. Not long after, his master’s wife fell in love with Joseph and attempted to seduce him. Joseph did not succumb to the temptation with God’s help. However, he was still accused as the aggressor and imprisoned. In the prison, Joseph interpreted the dream of one of his fellow prisoners who worked for the king. Joseph’s interpretation came to be true. The fellow prisoner was released and continued to work for the king. One day the king himself dreamed about “seven fat cows being eaten by seven lean ones; seven green ears of corn and [seven] others dry.”Footnote ³³ No one was able to offer a profound interpretation. The fellow prisoner remembered Joseph’s ability to interpret dreams and told the king about him. The king then summoned Joseph and asked him to interpret his dream. Joseph informed the king that there would be seven years of abundance followed by seven years of famine. So the king should store up and prepare for the years of hardship. Not long after, Joseph was exonerated and became the chief minister for the king. Because of the measures that were taken prior to the famine, Joseph’s brothers made their way to Egypt. The family was reunited. Joseph forgave his brothers for what they did to him. He said to them: “There is no reproach against you this day. God will forgive you. He is the Most Merciful of the merciful.”Footnote ³⁴

In the story, while the Qur’an makes clear that it was the moral evils of fellow humans that made Joseph suffer, it also points out that God was aware of what Joseph was going through. Everything depends on God, and nothing is beyond his knowledge. Throughout the story, both Joseph and his father, Jacob, turn to God with patience, hope, and trust. Eventually, Joseph becomes a means of a greater good and remains grateful to God. Joseph responds to his brothers’ evil with forgiveness and compassion.

The Qur’anic story of the creation of humans also provides an example of Islamic theology’s perspective on moral evil. According to this account, God told the angels that he would create humans as successors on earth. The angels asked, “How can You put someone there who will do evil and shed blood, when we celebrate Your praise and proclaim Your holiness?” But God responded, “I know what you do not know.”Footnote ³⁵ God then created Adam and Eve in heaven, and they were expelled from there because of their disobedience. In their new dwelling, the earth, God equipped humans with free will, and they had the opportunity to reach their full potential. While God’s desire for people is to use their capabilities for what is good, they also have the freedom to choose evil. God created humans despite their ability to commit moral evil. However, his wisdom justified their creation, including their evil acts, because of the greater good.

Moral Evil as the Manifestation of God’s Names

As indicated in Chapter 3, evil and suffering are also related to the manifestation of God’s names (asma al-husna). This world and the humans who live in it are limited in many ways, but they are unique configurations and manifestations of the divine names. To explain why God allows suffering, an analogy using fashion designers and models might be helpful. Once models are hired, they have no say in the clothes they will wear. It is a designer’s right to try various styles on the model; a model cannot say, “I do not want to wear this dress.” Let’s imagine there is a beautiful designer dress that a fashion model likes. If the designer decides to try another dress on the model, she cannot decline it if she dislikes it. The designer can only produce and decide on the best dress after many tries on the hired model. These tests will eventually reveal the best of the designer as well as the model. Likewise, each creature can be considered God’s fashion model. Without changes in our situation, including suffering because of moral evil, there is no way for people to know God.Footnote ³⁶ It is through these alterations that one becomes acquainted with God’s attributes, which are embodied in creation. For example, God is the Giver of Mercy (al-Rahim), the Most Generous (al-Karim), the Provider (al-Razzaq), and the Just (al-Adl). These names of God “require” the existence of the needy.Footnote ³⁷ That God is generous and all providing has no meaning unless there are creatures who call on God to meet their needs, including when they are facing moral evil. People who suffer become the mirror of God’s compassion, generosity, and justice not only in this world but also in the hereafter.

Fighting against Moral Evil

While Islamic theology emphasizes that there is nothing beyond God’s knowledge and that moral evil is part of God’s creation, it also admonishes people to use their freedom to fight against moral evil and stand for justice: “O you who believe! Stand firmly for justice, as witnesses for God, even if it is against yourselves, your parents, or your relatives. Whether one is rich or poor, God can best take care of both. So do not follow your own desire, so that you can act justly. If you distort or turn away from justice, then surely God is aware of what you do.”Footnote ³⁸ In another verse, the Qur’an reads, “God enjoins justice, kindness, and generosity towards relatives and He forbids indecency, injustice, and aggression. He admonishes you so that you may take heed.”Footnote ³⁹ The Qur’an also points to some specific acts that people should avoid. Among them are theft, injustice, oppression, lying, slandering, and backbiting. The Qur’an repeatedly asks believers to support the rights of the most vulnerable in society, especially those who are unable to defend themselves. It also points out that it is an obligation upon the rich to share a certain percentage of their income with those who are in need. It encourages them to be charitable. Violating the rights of fellow humans will result in a severe punishment not only in this world but also in the hereafter.

In a number of hadiths, the Prophet Muhammad also taught his followers to stand for justice and be mindful of the rights of not only people but also animals and plants. Concerning an evil act, he said: “Whosoever of you sees an evil, let him change it with his hand; and if he is not able to do so, then [let him change it] with his tongue; and if he is not able to do so, then with his heart – and that is the weakest level of faith.”Footnote ⁴⁰ In another hadith, Muhammad said: “The best jihad is to speak the truth to a tyrannical ruler.”Footnote ⁴¹ He did not want his people to be bystanders in the face of injustice and oppression.

Wrongdoers are asked to repent and seek the forgiveness of those they hurt because of their evil acts. The Qur’an also encourages those who are wronged to forgive: “But if you overlook their offenses, forgive them, pardon them, then truly God is Forgiving, Merciful.”Footnote ⁴² The Qur’an also points out that “the recompense of an evil is an evil like it. But whoever forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is with God. Indeed, He does not love evildoers.”Footnote ⁴³

Seeking Meaning in Evil and Suffering

Through suffering because of moral evil, humans progress and can move toward perfection. Without upsets, turbulence, and struggles, life is static and monotonous, and people cannot evolve morally, spiritually, and intellectually. Islamic theology teaches that pain may bring one closer to God and draws considerable attention to the suffering of the prophets as a result of moral evil, including Muhammad himself. Without poverty and hunger, we may not be able to appreciate wealth and surfeit. Without death, we cannot understand the importance of life. Without trials and tribulations, it would be difficult to imagine not only personal progress and gratitude but also material gains outside of one’s self, such as in human rights and medicine. It is then appropriate to end this chapter with the observations of the great Tunisian poet Abu al-Qasim al-Shabbi (d. 1934):