Trans-splicing requires that 5′ and 3′ splice sites be independently recognized. Here, we have used mutational analyses and a sensitive nuclease protection assay to determine the mechanism of trans-3′ splice site recognition in vitro. Efficient recognition of the 3′ splice site is dependent upon both the sequence of the 3′ splice site itself and enhancer elements located in the 3′ exon. We show that the presence of three distinct classes of enhancers results in increased binding of U2 snRNP to the branchpoint region. Several lines of evidence strongly suggest that the increased binding of U2 snRNP is mediated by U2AF. These results expand the roles of enhancers in constitutive splicing and provide direct support for the recruitment model of enhancer function.

The role of exonic sequences in naturally occurring trans-splicing has not been explored in detail. Here, we have identified trans-splicing enhancers through the use of an iterative selection scheme. Several classes of enhancer sequences were identified that led to dramatic increases in trans-splicing efficiency. Two sequence families were investigated in detail. These include motifs containing the element G/CGACG/C and also 5′ splice site-like sequences. Distinct elements were tested for their ability to function as splicing enhancers and in competition experiments. In addition, discrete trans-acting factors were identified. This work demonstrates that splicing enhancers are able to effect a large increase in trans-splicing efficiency and that the process of exon definition is able to positively enhance trans-splicing even though the reaction itself is independent of the need for the 5′ end of U1 snRNA. Due to the presence of internal introns in messages that are trans-spliced, the natural arrangement of 5′ splice sites downstream of trans-splicing acceptors may lead to a general promotion of this unusual reaction.

Splicing enhancers are RNA sequence elements that promote the splicing of nearby introns. The mechanism by which these elements act is still unclear. Some experiments support a model in which serine-arginine (SR)-rich proteins function as splicing activators by binding to enhancers and recruiting the splicing factor U2AF to an adjacent weak 3′ splice site. In this model, recruitment requires interactions between the SR proteins and the 35-kDa subunit of U2AF (U2AF35). However, more recent experiments have not supported the U2AF recruitment model. Here we provide additional evidence for the recruitment model. First, we confirm that base substitutions that convert weak 3′ splice sites to a consensus sequence, and therefore increase U2AF binding, relieve the requirement for a splicing activator. Second, we confirm that splicing activators are required for the formation of early spliceosomal complexes on substrates containing weak 3′ splice sites. Most importantly, we find that splicing activators promote the binding of both U2AF65 and U2AF35 to weak 3′ splice sites under splicing conditions. Finally, we show that U2AF35 is required for maximum levels of activator-dependent splicing. We conclude that a critical function of splicing activators is to recruit U2AF to the weak 3′ splice sites of enhancer-dependent introns, and that efficient enhancer-dependent splicing requires U2AF35.

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) is an RNA-binding protein that regulates splicing by repressing specific splicing events. It also has roles in 3′-end processing, internal initiation of translation, and RNA localization. PTB exists in three alternatively spliced isoforms, PTB1, PTB2, and PTB4, which differ by the insertion of 19 or 26 amino acids, respectively, between the second and third RNA recognition motif domains. Here we show that the PTB isoforms have distinct activities upon α-tropomyosin (TM) alternative splicing. PTB1 reduced the repression of TM exon 3 in transfected smooth muscle cells, whereas PTB4 enhanced TM exon 3 skipping in vivo and in vitro. PTB2 had an intermediate effect. The PTB4 > PTB2 > PTB1 repressive hierarchy was observed in all in vivo and in vitro assays with TM, but the isoforms were equally active in inducing skipping of α-actinin exons and showed the opposite hierarchy of activity when tested for activation of IRES-driven translation. These findings establish that the ratio of PTB isoforms could form part of a cellular code that in turn controls the splicing of various other pre-mRNAs.

The removal of noncoding sequences (introns) from eukaryotic precursor mRNA is catalyzed by the spliceosome, a dynamic assembly involving specific and sequential RNA–RNA and RNA–protein interactions. An essential RNA–RNA pairing between the U2 small nuclear (sn)RNA and a complementary consensus sequence of the intron, called the branch site, results in positioning of the 2′OH of an unpaired intron adenosine residue to initiate nucleophilic attack in the first step of splicing. To understand the structural features that facilitate recognition and chemical activity of the branch site, duplexes representing the paired U2 snRNA and intron sequences from Saccharomyces cerevisiae were examined by solution NMR spectroscopy. Oligomers were synthesized with pseudouridine (ψ) at a conserved site on the U2 snRNA strand (opposite an A-A dinucleotide on the intron strand, one of which forms the branch site) and with uridine, the unmodified analog. Data from NMR spectra of nonexchangeable protons demonstrated A-form helical backbone geometry and continuous base stacking throughout the unmodified molecule. Incorporation of ψ at the conserved position, however, was accompanied by marked deviation from helical parameters and an extrahelical orientation for the unpaired adenosine. Incorporation of ψ also stabilized the branch-site interaction, contributing −0.7 kcal/mol to duplex ΔG°37. These findings suggest that the presence of this conserved U2 snRNA pseudouridine induces a change in the structure and stability of the branch-site sequence, and imply that the extrahelical orientation of the branch-site adenosine may facilitate recognition of this base during splicing.

The mammalian thyroid hormone receptor gene c-erbAα gives rise to two mRNAs that code for distinct isoforms, TRα1 and TRα2, with antagonistic functions. Alternative processing of these mRNAs involves the mutually exclusive use of a TRα1-specific polyadenylation site or TRα2-specific 5′ splice site. A previous investigation of TRα minigene expression defined a critical role for the TRα2 5′ splice site in directing alternative processing. Mutational analysis reported here shows that purine residues within a highly conserved intronic element, SEα2, enhance splicing of TRα2 in vitro as well as in vivo. Although SEα2 is located within the intron of TRα2 mRNA, it activates splicing of a heterologous dsx pre-mRNA when located in the downstream exon. Competition with wild-type and mutant RNAs indicates that SEα2 functions by binding trans-acting factors in HeLa nuclear extract. Protein–RNA crosslinking identifies several proteins, including SF2/ASF and hnRNP H, that bind specifically to SEα2. SEα2 also includes an element resembling a 5′ splice site consensus sequence that is critical for splicing enhancer activity. Mutations within this pseudo-5′ splice site sequence have a dramatic effect on splicing and protein binding. Thus SEα2 and its associated factors are required for splicing of TRα2 pre-mRNA.

In Xenopus oocytes, the deadenylation of a specific class of maternal mRNAs results in their translational repression. Here we report the purification, characterization, and molecular cloning of the Xenopus poly(A) ribonuclease (xPARN). xPARN copurifies with two polypeptides of 62 kDa and 74 kDa, and we provide evidence that the 62-kDa protein is a proteolytic product of the 74-kDa protein. We have isolated the full-length xPARN cDNA, which contains the tripartite exonuclease domain conserved among RNase D family members, a putative RNA recognition motif, and a domain found in minichromosome maintenance proteins. Characterization of the xPARN enzyme shows that it is a poly(A)-specific 3′ exonuclease but does not require an A residue at the 3′ end. However, the addition of 25 nonadenylate residues at the 3′ terminus, or a 3′ terminal phosphate is inhibitory. Western analysis shows that xPARN is expressed throughout early development, suggesting that it may participate in the translational silencing and destabilization of maternal mRNAs during both oocyte maturation and embryogenesis. In addition, microinjection experiments demonstrate that xPARN can be activated in the oocyte nucleus in the absence of cytoplasmic components and that nuclear export of deadenylated RNA is impeded. Based on the poly(A) binding activity of xPARN in the absence of catalysis, a model for substrate specificity is proposed.

The hairpin ribozyme is a short endonucleolytic RNA motif isolated from a family of related plant virus satellite RNAs. It consists of two independently folding domains, each comprising two Watson–Crick helices flanking a conserved internal loop. The domains need to physically interact (dock) for catalysis of site-specific cleavage and ligation reactions. Using tapping-mode atomic force microscopy in aqueous buffer solution, we were able to produce high quality images of individual hairpin ribozyme molecules with extended terminal helices. Three RNA constructs with either the essential cleavage site guanosine or a detrimental adenosine substitution and with or without a 6-nt insertion to confer flexibility to the interdomain hinge show structural differences that correlate with their ability to form the active docked conformation. The observed contour lengths and shapes are consistent with previous bulk-solution measurements of the transient electric dichroism decays for the same RNA constructs. The active docked construct appears as an asymmetrically docked conformation that might be an indication of a more complicated docking event than a simple collapse around the interdomain hinge.

In yeast, the 3′ end of mature 18S rRNA is generated by endonucleolytic cleavage of the 20S precursor at site D. Available data indicate that the major cis-acting elements required for this processing step are located in relatively close proximity to the cleavage site. To identify these elements, we have studied the effect of mutations in the mature 18S and ITS1 sequences neighboring site D on pre-rRNA processing in vivo. Using clustered point mutations, we found that alterations in the sequence spanning site D from position −5 in 18S rRNA to +6 in ITS1 reduced the efficiency of processing at this site to different extents as demonstrated by the lower level of the mature 18S rRNA and the increase in 20S pre-rRNA in cells expressing only mutant rDNA units. More detailed analysis revealed an important role for the residue located 2 nt upstream from site D (position −2), whereas sequence changes at position −1, +1, and +2 relative to site D had no effect. The data further demonstrate that the proposed base pairing between the 3′ end of 18S rRNA and the 5′ end of ITS1 is not important for efficient and accurate processing at site D, nor for the formation of functional 40S ribosomal subunits. These results were confirmed by analyzing the accumulation of the D-A2 fragment derived from the mutant 20S pre-rRNA in cells that lack the Xrn1p exonuclease responsible for its degradation. The latter results also showed that the accuracy of cleavage was affected by altering the spacer sequence directly downstream of site D but not by mutations in the 18S rRNA sequence preceding this site.

The U3 small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein (snoRNP) is composed of a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and at least 10 proteins. The U3 snoRNA base pairs with the pre-rRNA to carry out the A0, A1, and A2 processing reactions that lead to the release of the 18S rRNA from the nascent pre-rRNA transcript. The yeast U3 snoRNA can be divided into a short 5′ domain (nt 1–39) and a larger 3′ domain (73 to the 3′ end) separated by a stretch of nucleotides called the hinge region (nt 40–72). The sequences required for pre-rRNA base pairing are found in the 5′ domain and hinge region whereas the 3′ domain is largely covered with proteins. Mpp10p, one of the protein components unique to the U3 snoRNP, plays a role in processing at the A1 and A2 sites. Because of its critical role in U3 snoRNP function, we determined which sequences in the U3 snoRNA are required for Mpp10p association. Unlike fibrillarin and all the previous U3 snoRNP components studied in this manner, sequences in the 3′ domain are not sufficient for Mpp10p association. Instead, a conserved sequence element in the U3 snoRNA hinge region is required, placing Mpp10p near the 5′ domain that carries out the pre-rRNA base-pairing interactions in the functional center of the U3 snoRNP.

We describe a new approach to elucidate the role of 3′-end processing in pre-mRNA splicing in vivo using the influenza virus NS1A protein. The effector domain of the NS1A protein, which inhibits the function of the CPSF and PABII factors of the cellular 3′-end-processing machinery, is sufficient for the inhibition of not only 3′-end formation but also the splicing of single-intron pre-mRNAs in vivo. We demonstrate that inhibition of the splicing of single-intron pre-mRNAs results from inhibition of 3′-end processing, thereby establishing that 3′-end processing is required for the splicing of a 3′ terminal intron in vivo. Because the NS1A protein causes a global suppression of 3′-end processing in trans, we avoid the ambiguities caused by the activation of cryptic poly(A) sites that occurs when mutations are introduced into the AAUAAA sequence in the pre-mRNA. In addition, this strategy enabled us to establish that the function of a particular 3′-end-processing factor, namely CPSF, is required for the splicing of single-intron pre-mRNAs in vivo: splicing is inhibited only when the effector domain of the NS1A protein binds and inhibits the function of the 30-kDa CPSF protein in 3′-end formation. In contrast, the 3′-end processing factor PABII is not required for splicing. We discuss the implications of these results for cellular and influenza viral mRNA splicing.