References

Dana M. Moss

doi:10.1017/9781009272148.011

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 April 2022

Dana M. Moss

Show author details

Dana M. Moss: Affiliation:
University of Notre Dame, Indiana

Book contents

Summary

A summary is not available for this content. As you have access to this content, full HTML content is provided on this page. A PDF of this content is also available in through the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Type: Chapter
Information: The Arab Spring Abroad
Diaspora Activism against Authoritarian Regimes
, pp. 239 - 262

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009272148.011 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2022
Creative Commons: This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

References

Primary Sources

Abdelrahman, M. (2011). The transnational and the local: Egyptian activists and transnational protest networks. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 38(3), 407–24.Google Scholar

Aboueldahab, N. (2019). Reclaiming Yemen: The role of the Yemeni professional diaspora. Brookings Doha Center, Analysis Paper no. 26, pp. 1–31.Google Scholar

Abramson, Y. (2017). Making a homeland, constructing a diaspora: The case of Taglit-Birthright Israel. Political Geography, 58, 14–23.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2002). Mobilizing for the transformation of home: Politicized identities and transnational practices. In al-Ali, N. and Koser, K., eds., New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home. London: Routledge, pp. 155–68.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2004). Displacement, diaspora mobilization, and transnational cycles of political violence. In Tirman, J., ed., The Maze of Fear: Security and Migration after 9/11. New York: New Press, pp. 45–58.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2005). Globalisation, transnational political mobilisation, and networks of violence. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 18(1), 35–53.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2006). International terrorism, nonstate actors, and transnational political mobilization: A perspective from international relations. In Biersteker, T., Spiro, P., Raffo, V., and Sriram, C., eds., International Law and International Relations: Bridging Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge, pp. 79–92.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2013). Mechanisms of diaspora mobilization and the transnationalization of civil war. In Checkel, J., ed., Transnational Dynamics of Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 63–88.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2016). The growing importance of diaspora politics. Current History, 115(784), 291–97.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. (2019). Non-state authoritarianism and diaspora politics. Global Networks, 20(1), 150–69.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. and Demetriou, M. (2007). Remapping the boundaries of “state” and “national identity”: Incorporating diasporas into IR theorizing. European Journal of International Relations, 13(4), 489–526.Google Scholar

Adamson, F. and Tsourapas, G. (2020). At home and abroad: Coercion-by-proxy as a tool of transnational repression. Freedom House Special Report 2020, December 15. https://freedomhouse.org/report/special-report/2020/home-and-abroad-coercion-proxy-tool-transnational-repression.Google Scholar

Adler, G. Jr. (2019). Empathy beyond US Borders: The Challenges of Transnational Civic Engagement. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ahmida, A. A. (2006). When the subaltern speak: Memory of genocide in colonial Libya, 1929 to 1933. Italian Studies, 61(2), 175–90.Google Scholar

Al-Ali, N. and Koser, K. (2002). New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Al-Haj Saleh, Y. (2017). The Impossible Revolution: Making Sense of the Syrian Tragedy. Chicago: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar

Al-Jizawi, N., Anstis, S., Chan, S., Senft, A., and Deibert, R. (2020). Annotation bibliography: Transnational digital repression. The Citizen Lab, November 15. https://citizenlab.ca/2020/11/annotated-bibliography-transnational-digital-repression/.Google Scholar

Al-Rumi, A. (2009). Libyan Berbers struggle to assert their identity online. Arab Media & Society, May 6. www.arabmediasociety.com/libyan-berbers-struggle-to-assert-their-identity-online/.Google Scholar

Alloush, B. (2018). Syrians in the USA: Solidarity despite Political Rifts. Paris: Arab Reform Initiative, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar

Alunni, A. (2019). Long-distance nationalism and belonging in the Libyan diaspora (1969–2011). British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 46(2), 242–58.Google Scholar

Alunni, A. (2020). National Belonging and Everyday Nationhood in the Age of Globalization: An Account of Global Flows in Libya. PhD thesis, Durham University.Google Scholar

Amarsaringham, A. (2015). Pain, Pride, and Politics: Social Movement Activism and the Sri Lankan Diaspora in Canada. Athens: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar

Ambrosio, T. (2002). Ethnic Identity Groups and U.S. Foreign Policy. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar

Amenta, E. (2006). When Movements Matter: The Townsend Plan and the Rise of Social Security. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Amnesty International. (2011). The long reach of the Mukhabaraat: Violence and harassment against Syrians abroad and their relatives back home. Amnesty International, October 3. www.amnesty.org/en/documents/MDE24/057/2011/en/.Google Scholar

Andén-Papadopoulos, K. and Pantti, M. (2013). The media work of Syrian diaspora activists: Brokering between the protest and mainstream media. International Journal of Communication, 7, 2185–206.Google Scholar

Anderson, B. (1998). The Spectre of Comparisons: Nationalism, Southeast Asia, and the World. New York: Verso.Google Scholar

Anderson, B. (2006[1983]). Imagined Communities, 2nd ed. New York: Verso.Google Scholar

Andrews, K. (2004). Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: The Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and Its Legacy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Anthias, F. (1998). Evaluating “diaspora”: Beyond ethnicity? Sociology, 32(3), 557–80.Google Scholar

Appadurai, A. (1997). Modernity at Large. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Appiah, K. (1997). Cosmopolitan patriots. Critical Inquiry, 23(3), 617–39.Google Scholar

Ayoub, P. (2013). Cooperative transnationalism in contemporary Europe: Europeanization and political opportunities for LGBT mobilization in the European Union. European Political Science Review, 5(2), 279–310.Google Scholar

Ayoub, P. (2016). When States Come Out: Europe’s Sexual Minorities and the Politics of Visibility. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bada, X. (2014). Mexican Hometown Associations in Chicagoacán: From Local to Transnational Civic Engagement. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Bakalian, A. and Bozorgmehr, M. (2009). Backlash 9/11: Middle Eastern and Muslim Americans Respond. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Bamyeh, M. (2014). Palestinians, diasporas, and US foreign policy. In Segura, R. and DeWind, J., eds., Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy. New York: New York University Press, pp. 76–94.Google Scholar

Bamyeh, M. and Hanafi, S. (2015). Introduction to the special issue on Arab uprisings. International Sociology, 30(4), 343–47.Google Scholar

Basch, L., Glick Schiller, N., and Szanton Blanc, C. (1994). Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States. New York: Gordon & Breach.Google Scholar

Baser, B. (2015). Diasporas and Homeland Conflicts: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Baser, B. and Halperin, A. (2019). Diasporas from the Middle East: Displacement, transnational identities and homeland politics. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 46(2), 215–21.Google Scholar

Baser, B. and Öztürk, A. (2020). Positive and negative diaspora governance in context: From public diplomacy to transnational authoritarianism. Middle East Critique, 29(3), 1–16.Google Scholar

Baser, B. and Swain, A. (2011). Stateless diaspora groups and their repertoires of nationalist activism in host countries. Journal of International Relations, 8(1), 37–60.Google Scholar

Bassiouni, C. (2013). Libya: From Repression to Revolution – A Record of Armed Conflict and International Law Violations, 2011–2013. Boston: Brill–Nijhoff.Google Scholar

Bauböck, R. (2003). Towards a political theory of migrant transnationalism. International Migration Review, 37(3), 700–23.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bauböck, R. (2008). Ties across borders: The growing salience of transnationalism and diaspora politics. International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion in Europe [IMISCOE] Policy Brief, no. 13, 1–8.Google Scholar

Bauböck, R. and Faist, T., eds. (2010). Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar

Bayat, A. (2017). Revolution without Revolutionaries: Making Sense of the Arab Spring. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Bayat, A. (2013). Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East, 2nd ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Beaugrand, C. and Geisser, V. (2016). Social mobilization and political participation in the diaspora during the “Arab Spring”. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 14(3), 239–43.Google Scholar

Beck, C. (2014). Reflections on the revolutionary wave in 2011. Theory and Society, 43(2), 197–223.CrossRef Google Scholar

Beissinger, M. (2013). The semblance of democratic revolution: Coalitions in Ukraine’s Orange Revolution. American Political Science Review, 107(3), 574–92.Google Scholar

Bell, J. (1972). Contemporary revolutionary organizations. In Keohane, R. and Nye, J. Jr., eds., Transnational Relations and World Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 153–68.Google Scholar

Benamer, H. (2012). The number of Libyan doctors in diaspora: Myths and facts. Libyan Journal of Medicine, 7(1), 1–2.Google Scholar

Benford, R. and Snow, D. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 611–39.Google Scholar

Berberian, H. (2019). Roving Revolutionaries: Armenians and the Connected Revolutions in the Russian, Iranian, and Ottoman Words. Oakland: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Bermudez, A. (2010). The transnational political practices of Colombians in Spain and the United Kingdom. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(1), 75–91.Google Scholar

Bernal, V. (2014). Nation as Network: Diaspora, Cyberspace, and Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Besteman, C. (2016). Making Refuge: Somali Bantu Refugees and Lewiston, Maine. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Betts, A. and Jones, W. (2016). Mobilising the Diaspora: How Refugees Challenge Authoritarianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Biernacki, P. and Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological Methods & Research, 10(2), 141–63.Google Scholar

Blanton, S. (1999). Instruments of security or tools of repression? Arms imports and human rights conditions in developing countries. Journal of Peace Research, 36(2), 233–44.Google Scholar

Blitz, B. (2009). Libyan nationals in the United Kingdom: Geo-political considerations and trends in asylum and return. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 10(2), 106–27.Google Scholar

Bloemraad, I. (2006). Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants and Refugees in the United States and Canada. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Bloemraad, I. (2013). The promise and pitfalls of comparative research design in the study of migration. Migration Studies, 1(1), 27–46.Google Scholar

Bob, C. (2001). Marketing rebellion: Insurgent groups, international media, and NGO support. International Politics, 38(3), 311–34.Google Scholar

Bob, C. (2002). Political process theory and transnational movements: Dialectics of protest among Nigeria’s Ogoni minority. Social Problems, 49(3), 395–415.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bob, C. (2005). The Marketing of Rebellion: Insurgents, Media, and International Activism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bob, C. (2019). Rights as Weapons: Instruments of Conflict, Tools of Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Boccagni, P., Lafleur, J.-M., and Levitt, P. (2016). Transnational politics as cultural circulation: Toward a conceptual understanding of migrant political participation on the move. Mobilities, 11(3), 444–63.Google Scholar

Boli, J. and Thomas, G. (1999). Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Bozorgmehr, M., Der-Martirosian, C., and Sabagh, G. (1996). Middle Easterners: A new kind of immigrant. In Waldinger, R. and Bozorgmehr, M., eds., Ethnic Los Angeles. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 345–78.Google Scholar

Bragdon, A. (1989). Early Arabic-speaking immigrant communities in Texas. Arab Studies Quarterly, 11(2/3), 83–101.Google Scholar

Brand, L. (2006). Citizens Abroad: Emigration and the State in the Middle East and North Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Brighton, S. (2007). British Muslims, multiculturalism and UK foreign policy: “Integration” and “cohesion” in and beyond the state. International Affairs, 83(1), 1–17.Google Scholar

Brinkerhoff, J. (2005). Digital diasporas and governance in semi‐authoritarian states: the case of the Egyptian Copts. Public Administration and Development, 25(3), 193–204.Google Scholar

Brinkerhoff, J. (2009). Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brinkerhoff, J. (2011). Diasporas and conflict societies: Conflict entrepreneurs, competing interests or contributors to stability and development? Conflict, Security & Development, 11(2), 115–43.Google Scholar

Brinkerhoff, J. (2016). Institutional Reform and Diaspora Entrepreneurs: The In-Between Advantage. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Brownlee, J., Masoud, T., and Reynolds, A. (2015). The Arab Spring: Pathways of Repression and Reform. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. (2004). Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. (2005). The “diaspora” diaspora. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(1), 1–19.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. (2013). Categories of analysis and categories of practice: A note on the study of Muslims in European countries of immigration. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(1), 1–8.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. (2015). Grounds for Difference. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. and Laitin, D. (1998). Ethnic and nationalist violence. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 423–52.Google Scholar

Brysk, A. (2000). From Tribal Village to Global Village. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Butler, K. (2001). Defining diaspora, refining a discourse. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 10(2), 189–219.CrossRef Google Scholar

Byman, D., Chalk, P., Hoffmann, B., Rosenau, W., and Brannan, D. (2001). Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements. Santa Monica: RAND.Google Scholar

Cainkar, L. (2009). Homeland Insecurity: The Arab American and Muslim American Experience after 9/11. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar

Cainkar, L. (2013). Global Arab world migrations and diasporas. Arab Studies Journal, 21(1), 126–65.Google Scholar

Cainkar, L. (2018). Fluid terror threat: A genealogy of the racialization of Arab, Muslim, and South Asian Americans. Amerasia Journal, 44(1), 27–59.Google Scholar

Cannistraro, P. (1985). Luigi Antonini and the Italian anti-fascist movement in the United States, 1940–1943. Journal of American Ethnic History, 5(1), 21–40.Google Scholar

Carlson, E. and Williams, N., eds. (2020). Comparative Demography of the Syrian Diaspora: European and Middle Eastern Destinations. European Studies of Population, vol. 20. Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar

Carpenter, C. (2010). Governing the global agenda: “Gatekeepers” and “issue adoption” in transnational advocacy networks. In Avant, D., Finnemore, M., and Sell, S., eds., Who Governs the Globe? New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 202–37.Google Scholar

Carroll, P. (1994). The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade: Americans in the Spanish Civil War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cederman, L.-E., Girardin, L., and Gleditsch, K. (2009). Ethnonationalist triads: Assessing the influence of kin groups on civil wars. World Politics, 61(3), 403–37.Google Scholar

Chalk, P. (2008). The Tigers abroad: How the LTTE diaspora supports the conflict in Sri Lanka. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 9(2), 97–104.Google Scholar

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis. London: Sage.Google Scholar

Chatty, D. (2010). Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chatty, D. (2018). Syria: The Making and Unmaking of a Refugee State. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Chang, P. (2015). Protest Dialectics: State Repression and South Korea’s Democracy Movement, 1970–1979. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Chaudhary, A. (2015). Spoiled by War: How Government Policies, Community Characteristics and Stigma Shape the Pakistani Migrant Non-profit Sector in London, Toronto and New York City. PhD dissertation, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar

Chaudhary, A. (2021). Ascriptive organizational stigma and the constraining of Pakistani immigrant organizations. International Migration Review, 55(1), 84–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918320920563.Google Scholar

Chaudhary, A. and Moss, D. (2019). Suppressing transnationalism: Bringing constraints into the study of transnational political action. Comparative Migration Studies, 7(9), 1–22.Google Scholar

Clifford, J. (1994). Diasporas. Cultural Anthropology, 9(3), 302–38.Google Scholar

Cochrane, F., Baser, B., and Swain, A. (2009). Home thoughts from abroad: Diasporas and peace-building in Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 32(8), 681–704.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cohen, R. (1996). Diasporas and the nation-state: From victims to challengers. International Affairs, 72(3), 507–20.Google Scholar

Cohen, R. (2008[1997]). Global Diasporas: An Introduction. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. (2000). Greed and grievance in civil war. Policy Research Working Paper no. 2355. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar

Collier, P., Elliott, V., Hegre, H., Hoeffler, A., Reynal-Querol, M., and Sambanis, N. (2003). Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. Washington, DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Conduit, D. (2019). The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cooley, A. and Heathershaw, J. (2017). Dictators without Borders: Power and Money in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Cress, D. and Snow, D. (2000). The outcomes of homeless mobilization: The influence of organization, disruption, political mediation, and framing. American Journal of Sociology, 105(4), 1063–104.Google Scholar

Curtis, R. Jr. and Zurcher, L. Jr. (1973). Stable resources of protest movements: The multi-organizational field. Social Forces, 52(1), 53–61.Google Scholar

Dalmasso, E., Del Sordi, A., Glasius, M., Hirt, N., Michaelsen, M., Mohammad, A., and Moss, D. (2017). Intervention: Extraterritorial authoritarian power. Political Geography, 64, 95–104.Google Scholar

Davis, D. and Moore, W. (1997). Ethnicity matters: Transnational ethnic alliances and foreign policy behavior. International Studies Quarterly, 41(1), 171–84.Google Scholar

Day, S. W. (2012). Regionalism and Rebellion in Yemen: A Troubled National Union. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Délano, A. and Gamlen, A. (2014). Comparing and theorizing state-diaspora relations. Political Geography, 41, 43–53.Google Scholar

Della Porta, D. and Tarrow, S., eds. (2005). Transnational Protest and Global Activism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

DeWind, J. and Segura, R., eds. (2014). Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Dickinson, E. (2015). Godfathers and thieves. Deca. www.decastories.com/godfathers/.Google Scholar

Duquette-Rury, L. (2016). Migrant transnational participation: How citizen inclusion and government engagement matter for local democratic development in Mexico. American Sociological Review, 81(4), 771–99.Google Scholar

Duquette-Rury, L. (2020). Exit and Voice: The Paradox of Cross-border Politics in Mexico. Oakland: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Dyssegaard Kallick, D., Roldan, C., and Mathema, S. (2016). Syrian immigrants in the United States: A receiving community for today’s refugees. Center for American Progress. www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/reports/2016/12/13/294851/syrian-immigrants-in-the-united-states-a-receiving-community-for-todays-refugees/.Google Scholar

Earl, J., Martin, A., McCarthy, J., and Soule, S. (2004). The use of newspaper data in the study of collective action. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 65–80.Google Scholar

Eccarius-Kelly, V. (2002). Political movements and leverage points: Kurdish activism in the European diaspora. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 22(1), 91–118.Google Scholar

Eckstein, S. (2009). The Immigrant Divide: How Cuban Americans Changed the US and Their Homeland. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Edwards, B. and McCarthy, J. (2004). Resources and social movement mobilization. In Snow, D., Soule, S., and Kriesi, H., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 116–52.Google Scholar

Eid, K. and di Giovanni, J. (2018). My Country: A Syrian Memoir. New York: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar

Eisinger, P. (1973). The conditions of protest behavior in American cities. American Political Science Review, 67(1), 11–28.Google Scholar

El-Abani, S., Jacobs, S., Chadwick, K., and Arun, S. (2020). Migration and attitudes towards domestic violence against women: A case study of Libyan migrants in the UK. Migration and Development, 9(1), 111–30.CrossRef Google Scholar

Fadlalla, A. H. (2019). Branding Humanity: Competing Narratives of Rights, Violence, and Global Citizenship. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Fahrenthold, S. (2013). Transnational modes and media: The Syrian press in the Mahjar and emigrant activism during World War I. Mashriq & Mahjar, 1(1), 30–54.Google Scholar

Fahrenthold, S. (2019). Between the Ottomans and the Entente: The First World War in the Syrian and Lebanese Diaspora, 1908–1925. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Fair, C. (2005). Diaspora involvement in insurgencies: Insights from the Khalistan and Tamil Eelam movements. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 11(1), 125–56.Google Scholar

Fair, C. (2007). The Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora: Sustaining conflict and pushing for peace. In Smith, H. and Stares, P., eds., Diasporas in Conflict: Peace-Makers or Peace-Wreckers? New York: United Nations University Press, pp. 172–95.Google Scholar

Faist, T. (2000). Transnationalization in international migration: Implications for the study of citizenship and culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(2), 189–222.Google Scholar

Field, J. Jr. (1971). Transnationalism and the new tribe. International Organization, 25(3), 353–72.Google Scholar

Finn, M. and Momani, B. (2017). Established and emergent political subjectivities in circular human geographies: Transnational Arab activists. Citizenship Studies, 21(1), 22–43.Google Scholar

Fligstein, N. and McAdam, D. (2012). A Theory of Fields. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Foner, N. (1997). What’s new about transnationalism? New York immigrants today and at the turn of the century. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 6(3), 355–75.Google Scholar

Friedlander, J., ed. (1988). Sojourners and Settlers: The Yemeni Immigrant Experience. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.Google Scholar

Gamlen, A. (2014). Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance. International Migration Review, 48(1), 180–217.Google Scholar

Gamlen, A., Cummings, M., and Vaaler, P. (2017). Explaining the rise of diaspora institutions. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(4), 492–516.Google Scholar

Gamson, W. and Wolfsfeld, G. (1993). Movements and media as interacting systems. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 528, 114–25.Google Scholar

Gazzini, Claudia. (2007). Talking back: Exiled Libyans use the web to push for change. Arab Media & Society, March 2. www.arabmediasociety.com/talking-back-exiled-libyans-use-the-web-to-push-for-change/.Google Scholar

Gerges, Fawaz A., ed. (2015). Contentious Politics in the Middle East: Popular Resistance and Marginalized Activism beyond the Arab Uprisings. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

George, A. and Bennett, A. (2004). Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Glaser, B. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 436–45.Google Scholar

Glasius, M. (2018). Extraterritorial authoritarian practices: A framework. Globalizations, 15(2), 179–97.Google Scholar

Glick Schiller, N. and Fouron, G. (2001). Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long-Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Godwin, M. (2018). Winning, Westminster-style: Tamil diaspora interest group mobilisation in Canada and the UK. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(8), 1325–40.Google Scholar

Goldring, L. (2004). Family and collective remittances to Mexico: A multi-dimensional typology. Development and Change, 35(4), 799–840.Google Scholar

Goodwin, J. (2001). No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Goodwin, J., Jasper, J., and Polletta, F., eds. (2001). Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Gordon, P. (1987). The killing machine: Britain and the international repression trade. Race & Class, 29(2), 31–52.Google Scholar

Gordon, S. and El Taraboulsi-McCarthy, S. (2018). Counter-terrorism, bank de-risking and humanitarian response: A path forward. Humanitarian Policy Group, Policy Brief 72, May 28, 2021. https://odi.org/en/publications/counter-terrorism-bank-de-risking-and-humanitarian-response-a-path-forward/.Google Scholar

Green, N. and Waldinger, R., eds. (2016). A Century of Transnationalism: Immigrants and Their Homeland Connections. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar

Grillo, M. C. and Pupcenoks, J. (2017). Let’s intervene! But only if they’re like us: The effects of group dynamics and emotion on the willingness to support humanitarian intervention. International Interactions, 43(2), 349–74.Google Scholar

Gualtieri, S. (2009). Between Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early Syrian American Diaspora. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Gualtieri, S. (2020). Arab Routes: Pathways to Syrian California. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Guarnizo, L., Sanchez, A., and Roach, E. (1999). Mistrust, fragmented solidarity, and transnational migration: Colombians in New York City and Los Angeles. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 367–96.Google Scholar

Guarnizo, L. and Díaz, L. (1999). Transnational migration: A view from Colombia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 397–421.Google Scholar

Guarnizo, L., Portes, A., and Haller, W. (2003). Assimilation and transnationalism: Determinants of transnational political action among contemporary migrants. American Journal of Sociology, 108(6), 1211–48.Google Scholar

Hafner-Burton, E. and Tsutsui, K. (2007). Justice lost! The failure of international human rights law to matter where needed most. Journal of Peace Research, 44(4), 407–25.Google Scholar

Hall, Stuart. (2016[2000]). Diaspora or the logic of cultural translation. MATRIZes, 10(3), 47–58.Google Scholar

Halliday, F. (2010[1992]). Britain’s First Muslims: Portrait of an Arab Community, 2nd ed. New York: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Haney, P. and Vanderbush, W. (1999). The role of ethnic interest groups in U.S. foreign policy: The case of the Cuban American National Foundation. International Studies Quarterly, 43(2), 341–61.Google Scholar

Harpaz, Y. (2019). Citizenship 2.0: Dual Nationality as a Global Asset. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

He, R. (2014). Tiananmen Exiles: Voices of the Struggle for Democracy in China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Hechter, M., Pfaff, S., and Underwood, P. (2016). Grievances and the genesis of rebellion: Mutiny in the Royal Navy, 1740 to 1820. American Sociological Review, 81(1), 165–89.Google Scholar

Hess, D. and Martin, B. (2006). Repression, backfire, and the theory of transformative events. Mobilization, 11(2), 249–67.Google Scholar

Hess, J. (2009). Immigrant Ambassadors: Citizenship and Belonging in the Tibetan Diaspora. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Hess, M. and Korf, B. (2014). Tamil diaspora and the political spaces of second‐generation activism in Switzerland. Global Networks, 14(4), 419–37.Google Scholar

Heydemann, S. (1999). Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Hilsum, L. (2012). Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar

Hironaka, A. (2005). Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Hirsch, E. (1990). Sacrifice for the cause: Group processes, recruitment, and commitment in a student social movement. American Sociological Review, 55(2), 243–54.Google Scholar

Hirschman, A. (1970). Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Hirschman, A. (1978). Exit, voice, and the state. World Politics, 31(1), 90–107.Google Scholar

Hirschman, A. (1986). Exit and voice: An expanding sphere of influence. In Hirschman, A., ed., Rival Views of Market Society and Other Recent Essays. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 77–101.Google Scholar

Hirschman, A. (1993). Exit, voice, and the fate of the German Democratic Republic: An essay in conceptual history. World Politics, 45(2), 173–202.Google Scholar

Hirt, N. (2014). The Eritrean diaspora and its impact on regime stability: Responses to UN sanctions. African Affairs, 114(454), 115–35.Google Scholar

Hockenos, P. (2003). Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism and the Balkan Wars. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Hoffmann, B. (2010). Bringing Hirschman back in: “Exit”, “voice”, and “loyalty” in the politics of transnational migration. The Latin Americanist, 54(2), 57–73.Google Scholar

Holmes, A. (2019). Coups and Revolutions: Mass Mobilization, the Egyptian Military, and the United States from Mubarak to Sisi. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Hooglund, E. (1987). Crossing the Waters: Arabic-Speaking Immigrants to the United States before 1940. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar

Horst, C. (2008a). A monopoly on assistance: International aid to refugee camps and the neglected role of the Somali diaspora. Africa Spectrum, 43(1), 121–31.Google Scholar

Horst, C. (2008b). The transnational political engagements of refugees: Remittance sending practices amongst Somalis in Norway. Conflict, Security & Development, 8(3), 317–39.Google Scholar

Horst, C. (2008c). The role of remittances in the transnational livelihood strategies of Somalis. In van Naerssen, T., Spaan, E., and Zoomers, A., eds., Global Migration and Development. New York: Routledge, pp. 91–107.Google Scholar

Horst, C. and van Hear, N. (2002). Counting the cost: Refugees, remittances and the “war against terrorism”. Forced Migration Review, 14, 32–34.Google Scholar

Howell, S. and Shryock, A. (2003). Cracking down on diaspora: Arab Detroit and America’s “War on Terror”. Anthropological Quarterly, 76(3), 443–62.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. (1996). Syria: The silenced Kurds. Human Rights Watch, 8(4). www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. (2011a). Days of bloodshed in Aden. Human Rights Watch, March 9. www.hrw.org/report/2011/03/09/days-bloodshed-aden.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. (2011b). US/UK: Documents reveal Libya rendition details. Human Rights Watch, September 8. www.hrw.org/news/2011/09/08/us/uk-documents-reveal-libya-rendition-details.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. (2017). “These are the crimes we are fleeing”: Justice for Syria in Swedish and German courts. Human Rights Watch, October 3. www.hrw.org/report/2017/10/04/these-are-crimes-we-are-fleeing/justice-syria-swedish-and-german-courts#.Google Scholar

Huntington, S. (1997). The erosion of American national interests. Foreign Affairs, 76(5), 28–49.CrossRef Google Scholar

Huntington, S. (2004). Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar

Huynh, J. and Yiu, J. (2015). Breaking blocked transnationalism: Intergenerational change in homeland ties. In Portes, A. and Fernández-Kelly, P., eds., The State and the Grassroots: Immigrant Transnational Organizations in Four Continents. New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 160–88.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. (2011a). Popular protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VI): The Syrian People’s Slow-Motion Revolution. Middle East/North Africa Report, no. 108, July 6. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/eastern-mediterranean/syria/popular-protest-north-africa-and-middle-east-vi-syrian-people-s-slow-motion-revolution.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. (2011b). Popular protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regime’s Slow-Motion Suicide. Middle East/North Africa Report, no. 109, July 13. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/eastern-mediterranean/syria/popular-protest-north-africa-and-middle-east-vii-syrian-regime-s-slow-motion-suicide.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. (2011c). Uncharted waters: Thinking through Syria’s dynamics. Middle East Briefing, no. 31, November 24. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/eastern-mediterranean/syria/uncharted-waters-thinking-through-syria-s-dynamics.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. (2011d). Yemen between reform and revolution. Middle East/North Africa Report, no. 102, March 14. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/yemen-between-reform-and-revolution.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. (2011e). Breaking point? Yemen’s southern question. Middle East Report, no. 114, October 20. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/breaking-point-yemen-s-southern-question.Google Scholar

Jacobs, L. (2015). Strangers in the West: The Syrian Colony of New York City, 1880–1900. New York: Kalimah Press.Google Scholar

Jamal, A. and Naber, N., eds. (2008). Race and Arab Americans before and after 9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Jasper, J. (1998). The emotions of protest: Affective and reactive emotions in and around social movements. Sociological Forum, 13(3), 397–424.Google Scholar

Jasper, J. (2018). The Emotions of Protest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Jenkins, J. and Eckert, C. (1986). Channeling Black insurgency: Elite patronage and professional social movement organizations in the development of the Black Movement. American Sociological Review, 51(6), 812–29.Google Scholar

Jörum, E. (2015). Repression across borders: Homeland response to anti-regime mobilization among Syrians in Sweden. Diaspora Studies, 8(2), 104–19.Google Scholar

Kapur, D. (2010). Diaspora, Development, and Democracy: The Domestic Impact of International Migration from India. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kay, T. (2011). NAFTA and the Politics of Labor Transnationalism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Keck, M. (1995). Social equity and environmental politics in Brazil: Lessons from the rubber tappers of Acre. Comparative Politics, 27(4), 409–24.Google Scholar

Keck, M. and Sikkink, K. (1998). Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Kennedy, G. (2019). Diaspora incorporation mechanisms: Sustained and episodic mobilisation among the British-Egyptian diaspora after the Arab Spring. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1693887.Google Scholar

Keohane, R. and Nye, J. Jr., eds. (1972). Transnational Relations and World Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Ketchley, Neil. (2017). Egypt in a Time of Revolution: Contentious Politics and the Arab Spring. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kitschelt, H. (1986). Political opportunity structures and political protest: Anti-nuclear movements in four democracies. British Journal of Political Science, 16(1), 57–85.Google Scholar

Kitts, J. (2000). Mobilizing in black boxes: Social networks and participation in social movement organizations. Mobilization, 5(2), 241–57.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2010a). Diasporas and international politics: Utilising the universalistic creed of liberalism for particularistic and nationalist purposes. In Bauböck, R. and Faist, T., eds., Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, pp. 149–66.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2010b). Unintended consequences of diaspora entrepreneurship during post-conflict reconstruction. International Affairs Forum, 153–58.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2011). Diasporas and secessionist conflicts: The mobilization of the Armenian, Albanian and Chechen diasporas. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34(2), 333–56.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2012). Autonomy and positionality in diaspora politics. International Political Sociology, 6(1), 99–103.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2013). Four types of diaspora mobilization: Albanian diaspora activism for Kosovo independence in the US and the UK. Foreign Policy Analysis, 9(4), 433–53.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2014). Why do conflict-generated diasporas pursue sovereignty-based claims through state-based or transnational channels? Armenian, Albanian and Palestinian diasporas in the UK compared. European Journal of International Relations, 20(4), 1043–71.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. (2018). Critical junctures and transformative events in diaspora mobilisation for Kosovo and Palestinian statehood. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(8), 1289–308.Google Scholar

Koinova, M. and Tsourapas, G. (2018). How do countries of origin engage migrants and diasporas? Multiple actors and comparative perspectives. International Political Science Review, 39(3), 311–21.Google Scholar

Koopmans, R. and Statham, P. (1999). Challenging the liberal nation‐state? Postnationalism, multiculturalism, and the collective claims making of migrants and ethnic minorities in Britain and Germany. American Journal of Sociology, 105(3), 652–96.Google Scholar

Kurzman, C. (2004). The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Laakso, L. and Hautaniemi, P., eds. (2014). Diasporas, Development and Peacemaking in the Horn of Africa. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Lacroix, T., Levitt, P., and Vari-Lavoisier, I. (2016). Social remittances and the changing transnational political landscape. Comparative Migration Studies, 4(16), 1–5.Google Scholar

Lainer-Vos, D. (2013). Sinews of the Nation: Constructing Irish and Zionist Bonds in the United States. Malden, MA: Polity Press.Google Scholar

Lawson, G. (2019). Anatomies of Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Lee, L.-T., ed. (1987). The 1911 Revolution: The Chinese in British and Dutch Southeast Asia. Singapore: Heinemann Asia.Google Scholar

Lefèvre, R. (2013). Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Lemon, E. (2019). Weaponizing interpol. Journal of Democracy, 30(2), 15–29.Google Scholar

Levitt, P. (1998). Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion. International Migration Review, 32(4), 926–48.Google Scholar

Levitt, P. (2001). The Transnational Villagers. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Levitt, P. (2003). Keeping feet in both worlds: Transnational practices and immigrant incorporation in the United States. In Jopke, C. and Morowska, E., eds., Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 177–94.Google Scholar

Levitt, P. and Glick Schiller, N. (2004). Conceptualizing simultaneity: A transnational social field perspective on society. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1002–39.Google Scholar

Lewis, D. (2015). “Illiberal spaces”: Uzbekistan’s extraterritorial security practices and the spatial politics of contemporary authoritarianism. Nationalities Papers, 43(1), 140–59.Google Scholar

Lindsley, L. (1943). War Is People. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar

Lipsky, M. (1968). Protest as a political resource. American Political Science Review, 62(4), 1144–58.Google Scholar

Lofland, J., Snow, D., Anderson, L., and Lofland, L. (2006[1971]). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar

Lynch, M. (2016). The New Arab Wars: Uprisings and Anarchy in the Middle East. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar

Lyons, T., and Mandaville, P. (2012). Politics from Afar: Transnational Diasporas and Networks. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Ma, L. (1990). Revolutionaries, Monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese Politics in the Americas and the 1911 Revolution. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar

Ma, S.-Y. (1993). The exit, voice, and struggle to return of Chinese political exiles. Pacific Affairs, 66(3), 368–85.Google Scholar

Maghbouleh, N. (2017). The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Maghur, A. (2010). Highly-Skilled Migration (Libya): Legal Aspects. CARIM Analytic and Synthetic Notes, 2010/31. Fiesole, Italy: Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute.Google Scholar

Maney, G. (2000). Transnational mobilization and civil rights in Northern Ireland. Social Problems, 47(2), 153–79.Google Scholar

Mann, M. (1984). The autonomous power of the state: Its origins, mechanisms and results. European Journal of Sociology, 25(2), 185–213.Google Scholar

Mann, M. (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Marx, K. (1978[1872]). Manifesto of the communist party. In Tucker, R., ed., The Marx-Engels Reader, 2nd ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, pp. 469–500.Google Scholar

Masud-Piloto, F. (1996). From Welcomed Exiles to Illegal Immigrants: Cuban Migration to the U.S., 1959–1995. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Matar, H. (2016). The Return: Fathers, Sons and the Land in Between. New York: Random House.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. (1986). Recruitment to high-risk activism: The case of Freedom Summer. American Journal of Sociology, 92(1), 64–90.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. (1988). Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. (1996). Conceptual origins, current problems, future directions. In McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., and Zald, M., eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 23–40.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. (1998). On the international origins of domestic political opportunities. In Costain, A. and McFarland, A., eds., Social Movements and American Political Institutions. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 251–67.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. (1999[1982]). Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

McAdam, D. and Boudet, H. (2012). Putting Social Movements in Their Place: Explaining Opposition to Energy Projects in the United States, 2000–2005. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., and Zald, M., eds. (1996). Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

McAdam, D., Tarrow, S., and Tilly, C. (2001). Dynamics of Contention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J. (1997). The globalization of social movement theory. In Smith, J., Chatfield, C., and Pagnucco, R., eds., Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics: Solidarity beyond the State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, pp. 243–57.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J. and Zald, M. (1977). Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory. American Journal of Sociology, 82(6), 1212–41.Google Scholar

Mearsheimer, J. and Walt, S. (2007). The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar

Meyer, D. (2004). Protest and political opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 125–45.Google Scholar

Meyer, D. and Corrigall-Brown, C. (2005). Coalitions and political context: U.S. movements against wars in Iraq. Mobilization, 10(3), 327–44.Google Scholar

Michaelsen, M. (2017). Far away, so close: Transnational activism, digital surveillance and authoritarian control in Iran. Surveillance & Society, 15(3/4), 465–70.Google Scholar

Michaelsen, M. (2018). Exit and voice in a digital age: Iran’s exiled activists and the authoritarian state. Globalizations, 15(2), 248–64.Google Scholar

Miller, M. (1981). Foreign Workers in Western Europe: An Emerging Political Force. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar

Missbach, A. (2011). Separatist Conflict in Indonesia. The Long-Distance Politics of the Acehnese Diaspora. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Moss, D. (2014). Repression, response, and contained escalation under “liberalized” authoritarianism in Jordan. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 19(3), 489–514.Google Scholar

Moss, D. (2016a). Diaspora mobilization for western military intervention during the Arab Spring. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 14(3), 277–97.Google Scholar

Moss, D. (2016b). Transnational repression, diaspora mobilization, and the case of the Arab Spring. Social Problems, 63(4), 480–98.Google Scholar

Moss, D. (2018). The ties that bind: Internet communication technologies, networked authoritarianism, and “voice” in the Syrian diaspora. Globalizations, 15(2), 265–82.Google Scholar

Moss, D. (2020). Voice after exit: Explaining diaspora mobilization for the Arab Spring. Social Forces, 98(4), 1669–94.Google Scholar

Moya, J. (2005). Immigrants and associations: A global and historical perspective. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 833–64.Google Scholar

Mueller, C. M. (1992). Building social movement theory. In Morris, A. D. and Mueller, C. M., eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp. 3–25.Google Scholar

Mueller, C. M. (1999). Escape from the GDR, 1961–1989: Hybrid exit repertoires in a disintegrating Leninist regime. American Journal of Sociology, 105(3), 697–35.Google Scholar

Munif, Y. (2020). The Syrian Revolution: Between the Politics of Life and the Geopolitics of Death. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar

Naber, N. (2006). The rules of forced engagement: Race, gender, and the culture of fear among Arab immigrants in San Francisco post-9/11. Cultural Dynamics, 18(3), 235–67.Google Scholar

Naber, N. (2012). Arab America: Gender, Cultural Politics, and Activism. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Naber, N. (2014). Imperial whiteness and the diasporas of empire. American Quarterly, 66(4), 1107–115.Google Scholar

Nagel, C. (2002). Geopolitics by another name: Immigration and the politics of assimilation. Political Geography, 21(8), 971–87.Google Scholar

Nahlawi, Y. (2019). The Responsibility to Protect in Libya and Syria: Mass Atrocities, Human Protection, and International Law. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Nepstad, S. and Smith, C. (2001). The social structure of moral outrage in recruitment to the U.S. Central America Peace Movement. In Goodwin, J., Jasper, J., and Polletta, F., eds., Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 158–74.Google Scholar

Newland, K. (2010). Voice after Exit: Diaspora Advocacy. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar

Noueihed, L. and Warren, A. (2012). The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Nye, J. Jr. and Keohane, R. (1971). Transnational relations and world politics: An introduction. International Organization, 25(3), 329–49.Google Scholar

O’Donnell, G. (1986). On the fruitful convergences of Hirschman’s Exit, Voice, and Loyalty and Shifting Involvements: Reflections from the recent Argentine experience. In Foxley, A., McPherson, M., and O’Donnell, G., eds., Development, Democracy, and the Art of Trespassing: Essays in the Honor of Albert O. Hirschman. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 249–68.Google Scholar

Ögelman, N., Money, J., and Martin, P. (2002). Immigrant cohesion and political access in influencing host country foreign policy. SAIS Review, 22(2), 145–65.Google Scholar

Okamoto, D. (2014). Redefining Race: Asian American Panethnicity and Shifting Ethnic Boundaries. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar

Orjuela, C. (2008). Distant warriors, distant peace workers? Multiple diaspora roles in Sri Lanka’s violent conflict. Global Networks, 8(4), 436–52.Google Scholar

Orjuela, C. (2018). Mobilising diasporas for justice: Opportunity structures and the presencing of a violent past. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(8), 1357–73.Google Scholar

Orwell, G. (2015[1952]). Homage to Catalonia. Boston: Mariner Books.Google Scholar

Østergaard-Nielsen, E. (2001). Diasporas in world politics. In Josselin, D. and Wallace, W., eds., Non-state Actors in World Politics. New York: Palgrave, pp. 217–35.Google Scholar

Østergaard-Nielsen, E. (2003). Transnational Politics: Turks and Kurds in Germany. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Othman, M. (2011). Language Maintenance in the Arabic–Speaking Community in Manchester, Britain: A Sociolinguistic Investigation. PhD thesis, University of Manchester, UK.Google Scholar

Pargeter, A. (2008). Qadhafi and political Islam in Libya. In Vandewalle, D., ed., Libya since 1969: Qadhafi’s Revolution Revisited. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 83–104.Google Scholar

Pargeter, A. (2012). Libya: The Rise and Fall of Qaddafi. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Paul, J. (1990). Human Rights in Syria. New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar

Pearlman, W. (2014). Competing for Lebanon’s diaspora: Transnationalism and domestic struggles in a weak state. International Migration Review, 48(1), 34–75.Google Scholar

Pearlman, W. (2016). Narratives of fear in Syria. Perspectives on Politics, 14(1), 21–37.Google Scholar

Pearlman, W. (2017). We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar

Pedraza, S. (2007). Political Disaffection in Cuba’s Revolution and Exodus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pedraza-Bailey, S. 1985. Cuba’s exiles: Portrait of a refugee migration. International Migration Review, 19(1), 4–34.Google Scholar

Pennock, P. (2017). The Rise of the Arab American Left: Activists, Allies, and Their Fight against Imperialism and Racism, 1960s–1980s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar

Pérez-Armendáriz, C. and Duquette-Rury, L. (2021). The 3x1 Program for migrants and vigilante groups in contemporary Mexico. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(6), 1414–1433. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1623345.Google Scholar

Pfaff, S. (2006). Exit-Voice Dynamics and the Collapse of East Germany: The Crisis of Leninism and the Revolution of 1989. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Pfaff, S. and Kim, H. (2003). Exit‐voice dynamics in collective action: An analysis of emigration and protest in the East German Revolution. American Journal of Sociology, 109(2), 401–44.Google Scholar

Polletta, F. and Jasper, J. (2001). Collective identity and social movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 283–305.Google Scholar

Portes, A. (2000). The two meanings of social capital. Sociological Forum, 15(1), 1–12.Google Scholar

Portes, A. and Fernández-Kelly, P., eds. (2015). The State and the Grassroots: Immigrant Transnational Organizations in Four Continents. Oxford: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar

Pulcini, T. (1993). Trends in research on Arab Americans. Journal of American Ethnic History, 12(4), 27–60.Google Scholar

Pupcenoks, J. (2012). Religion or ethnicity?: Middle Eastern conflicts and American Arab-Muslim protest politics. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 18, 170–92.Google Scholar

Pupcenoks, J. (2016). Western Muslims and Conflicts Abroad: Conflict Spillovers to Diasporas. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Qayyum, M. (2011). Syrian Diaspora: Cultivating a New Public Space Consciousness. Policy Brief 35, August 2011. Washington, DC: Middle East Institute.Google Scholar

Quinsaat, S. (2013). Migrant mobilization for homeland politics: A social movement approach. Sociology Compass, 7(11), 952–64.Google Scholar

Quinsaat, S. (2016). Diaspora activism in a non-traditional country of destination: The case of Filipinos in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(6), 1014–33.Google Scholar

Quinsaat, S. (2019). Linkages and strategies in Filipino diaspora mobilization for regime change. Mobilization, 24(2), 221–39.Google Scholar

Ragazzi, F. (2014). A comparative analysis of diaspora policies. Political Geography, 41, 74–89.Google Scholar

Ragazzi, F. (2017). Governing Diasporas in International Relations: The Transnational Politics of Croatia and Former Yugoslavia. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Ragin, C. (2000). Fuzzy-Set Social Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Ragin, C. (2008). Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Ragin, C., Nagel, J., and White, P. (2004). Workshop on Scientific Foundations of Qualitative Research. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.Google Scholar

Rasler, K. (1996). Concessions, repression, and political protest in the Iranian Revolution. American Sociological Review, 61(1), 132–52.Google Scholar

Ratha, D., De, S., Kim, E.-J., Plaza, S., Seshan, G., and Yameogo, N. (2019). Data release: Remittances to low- and middle-income countries on track to reach $551 billion in 2019 and $597 billion by 2021. World Bank Blog: People Move. https://blogs.worldbank.org/peoplemove/data-release-remittances-low-and-middle-income-countries-track-reach-551-billion-2019.Google Scholar

Rawlence, B. (2016). City of Thorns: Nine Lives in the World’s Largest Refugee Camp. New York: Picador.Google Scholar

Repucci, S. (2020). Freedom in the world 2020: A leaderless struggle for democracy. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/FIW_2020_REPORT_BOOKLET_Final.pdf Google Scholar

Richardson, R. (2015). Comintern Army: The International Brigades and the Spanish Civil War. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.Google Scholar

Risse-Kappen, T., ed. (1995). Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Risse, T., Ropp, S., and Sikkink, K. (2013). The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ron, J., Ramos, H., and Rodgers, K. (2005). Transnational information politics: NGO human rights reporting, 1986–2000. International Studies Quarterly, 49(3), 557–87.Google Scholar

Roston, A. (2008). The Man Who Pushed America to War: The Extraordinary Life, Adventures, and Obsessions of Ahmad Chalabi. New York: Nation Books.Google Scholar

Rucht, D. (2004). Movement allies, adversaries, and third parties. In Snow, D., Soule, S., and Kriesi, H., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 197–216.Google Scholar

Rudolph, S. and Piscatori, J., eds. (1997). Transnational Religion and Fading States. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Russo, C. (2018). Solidarity in Practice: Moral Protest and the US Security State. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Safran, W. (1991). Diasporas in modern societies: Myths of homeland and return. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 1(1), 83–99.Google Scholar

Said, A. (2020). The rise and fall of the Tahrir repertoire: Theorizing temporality, trajectory, and failure. Social Problems. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa024.Google Scholar

Santoro, W. and Azab, M. (2015). Arab American protest in the terror decade: Macro- and micro-level response to post-9/11 repression. Social Problems, 62(2), 219–40.Google Scholar

Schattschneider, E. (1960). The Semisovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America. New York: Thomson Learning.Google Scholar

Schwedler, J. (2006). Faith in Moderation: Islamist Parties in Jordan and Yemen. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Seddon, M. (2014). The Last of the Lascars: Yemeni Muslims in Britain, 1836–2012. Leicestershire: Kube.Google Scholar

Shain, Y. (1996). Arab-Americans at a crossroads. Journal of Palestine Studies, 25(3), 46–59.Google Scholar

Shain, Y. (1999). Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the U.S. and Their Homelands. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Shain, Y. (2002). The role of diasporas in conflict perpetuation or resolution. SAIS Review, 22(2), 115–44.Google Scholar

Shain, Y. (2005[1989]). The Frontier of Loyalty: Political Exiles in the Age of the Nation-State. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Shain, Y. (2007). Kinship and Diasporas in International Affairs. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Sheffer, G. (2003). Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Skrentny, J. (1998). The effects of the Cold War on African-American civil rights: America and the world audience, 1945–1968. Theory and Society, 27(2), 237–85.Google Scholar

Simes, J. (2021). Punishing Places: The Geography of Mass Imprisonment in America. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Smith, C. (1996). Resisting Reagan: The U.S. Central America Peace Movement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Smith, H. and Stares, P. (2007). Diasporas in Conflict: Peace-Makers or Peace-Wreckers? New York: United Nations University Press.Google Scholar

Smith, J. (2004). Transnational processes and movements. In Snow, D., Soule, S., and Kriesi, H., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 311–53.Google Scholar

Smith, J. (2008). Social Movements for Global Democracy. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Smith, J. and Johnston, H., eds., (2002). Globalization and Resistance: Transnational Dimensions of Social Movements. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Smith, R. (2006). Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Smith, T. (2000). Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Snow, D. (2013). Identity dilemmas, discursive fields, identity work, and mobilization: Clarifying the identity-movement nexus. In van Stekelenburg, J., Roggeband, C., and Klandermans, B., eds., The Future of Social Movement Research: Dynamics, Mechanisms, and Processes. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 263–80.Google Scholar

Snow, D. and Benford, R. (1988). Ideology, frame resonance, and participant mobilization. International Social Movement Research, 1(1), 197–218.Google Scholar

Snow, D. and Moss, D. (2014). Protest on the fly: Toward a theory of spontaneity in the dynamics of protest and social movements. American Sociological Review, 79(6), 1122–43.Google Scholar

Snow, D., Cress, D., Downey, L., and Jones, A. (1998). Disrupting the “quotidian”: Reconceptualizing the relationship between breakdown and the emergence of collective action. Mobilization, 3(1), 1–22.Google Scholar

Sökefeld, M. (2006). Mobilizing in transnational space: A social movement approach to the formation of diaspora. Global Networks, 6(3), 265–84.Google Scholar

Soule, S. (2004). Diffusion processes within and across movements. In Snow, D., Soule, S., and Kriesi, H., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 294–310.Google Scholar

Soule, S. (2013). Diffusion and scale shift. In Snow, D., Della Porta, D., Klandermans, B., and McAdam, D., eds., The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social & Political Movements, vol. 1. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 349–53.Google Scholar

St. John, R. B. (2017). Libya: From Colony to Revolution, 3rd ed. New York: Oneworld Publications.Google Scholar

Staeheli, L. and Nagel, C. (2008). Rethinking security: Perspectives from Arab-American and British Arab activists. Antipode, 40(5), 780–801.Google Scholar

Staggenborg, S. (1988). The consequences of professionalization and formalization in the pro-choice movement. American Sociological Review, 53(4), 585–605.Google Scholar

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Svoboda, E. and Pantuliano, S. (2015). International and local/diaspora actors in the Syria response: A diverging set of systems? Working Paper, Humanitarian Policy Group. London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI).Google Scholar

Tarrow, S. (1998). Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Tarrow, S. (2001). Transnational politics: Contention and institutions in international politics. Annual Review of Political Science, 4(1), 1–20.Google Scholar

Tarrow, S. (2005). The New Transnational Activism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Tarrow, S. (2011). Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Tarrow, S. (2015). War, States, and Contention: A Comparative Historical Study. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Taylor, V. (1989). Social movement continuity: The women’s movement in abeyance. American Sociological Review, 54(5), 761–75.Google Scholar

Tilly, C. (1976[1964]). The Vendée. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Tilly, C. (1978). From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar

Tilly, C. (2004). Social Movements, 1768–2004. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.Google Scholar

Tölölyan, K. (1996). Rethinking diaspora(s): Stateless power in the transnational moment. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 5(1), 3–36.Google Scholar

Tsourapas, G. (2020a). Global autocracies: Strategies of transnational repression, legitimation, and co-optation in world politics. International Studies Review. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viaa061.Google Scholar

Tsourapas, G. (2020b). The long arm of the Arab State. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43(2), 351–70.Google Scholar

Tsutsui, K. (2004). Global civil society and ethnic social movements in the contemporary world. Sociological Forum, 19, 63–87.Google Scholar

Tsutsui, K. (2006). Redressing past human rights violations: Global dimensions of contemporary social movements. Social Forces, 85(1), 331–54.Google Scholar

Tsutsui, K. (2018). Rights Make Might: Global Human Rights and Minority Social Movements in Japan. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

United States of America v. Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid. (2011). U.S. District Court of Alexandria, VA, October. www.investigativeproject.org/documents/case_docs/1714.pdf.Google Scholar

van Hear, N. and Cohen, R. (2017). Diasporas and conflict: Distance, contiguity and spheres of engagement. Oxford Development Studies, 45(2), 171–84.Google Scholar

Vanderbush, W. (2014). The Iraqi diaspora and the US invasion of Iraq. In DeWind, J. and Segura, R., eds., Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy. New York: New York University Press, pp. 211–35.Google Scholar

Vaughan, G. (2020). Storms spark activism among Turkmen diaspora. The Diplomat, June 19. https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/storms-spark-activism-among-turkmen-diaspora/.Google Scholar

Vertovec, S. (2004). Cheap calls: The social glue of migrant transnationalism. Global Networks, 4(2), 219–24.Google Scholar

Vertovec, S. (2005). The political importance of diasporas. Working Paper no. 13, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society. Oxford: University of Oxford.Google Scholar

von Bülow, M. (2010). Building Transnational Networks: Civil Society Networks and the Politics of Trade in the Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wald, K. (2008). Homeland interests, hostland politics: Politicized ethnic identity among Middle Eastern heritage groups in the United States. International Migration Review, 42(2), 273–301.Google Scholar

Wald, K. (2009). The diaspora project of Arab Americans: Assessing the magnitude and determinants of politicized ethnic identity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(8), 1304–24.Google Scholar

Waldinger, R. (2008). Between “here” and “there”: Immigrant cross-border activities and loyalties, International Migration Review, 42(1), 3–29.Google Scholar

Waldinger, R. (2015). The Cross-Border Connection: Immigrants, Emigrants, and Their Homelands. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Waldinger, R. and Fitzgerald, D. (2004). Transnationalism in question. American Journal of Sociology, 109(5), 1177–95.Google Scholar

Warbrick, C. (2012). I. British policy and the National Transitional Council of Libya. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 61(1), 247–64.Google Scholar

Wayland, S. (2004). Ethnonationalist networks and transnational opportunities: The Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora. Review of International Studies, 30(3), 405–26.Google Scholar

Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Edited by Roth, G. and Wittich, C.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Wedeen, L. (2015[1999]). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Wehrey, F. (2017). Insecurity and governance challenges in southern Libya. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 27. https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/03/30/insecurity-and-governance-challenges-in-southern-libya-pub-68451.Google Scholar

Wellman, E. (2021). Emigrant inclusion in home country elections: Theory and evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. American Political Science Review, 115(1), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000866.Google Scholar

Wescott, C. and Brinkerhoff, J., eds. (2006). Converting Migration Drains into Gains: Harnessing the Resources of Overseas Professionals. Manilla, Philippines: Asian Development Bank.Google Scholar

White, R. (1989). From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army. American Journal of Sociology, 94(6), 1277–302.Google Scholar

Williamson, Hugh. (2015). Dispatches: Jailed in Azerbaijan for a protest in Berlin. Human Rights Watch, February 17. www.hrw.org/news/2015/02/17/dispatches-jailed-azerbaijan-protest-berlin.Google Scholar

Wimmer, A. (2013). Ethnic Boundary Making: Institutions, Power, Networks. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Wimmer, A. and Glick Schiller, N. (2002). Methodological nationalism and beyond: Nation-state building, migration and the social sciences. Global Networks, 2(4), 301–34.Google Scholar

World Bank. (2018). Record high remittances to low- and middle-income countries in 2017. April 23. Washington, DC: World Bank. www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/04/23/record-high-remittances-to-low-and-middle-income-countries-in-2017.Google Scholar

Wright, J. (2012). A History of Libya. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Yadav, S. (2016). The ties that bind. Middle East Research and Information Project, 281(Winter). https://merip.org/2017/05/the-ties-that-bind/.Google Scholar

Yassin-Kassab, R. and Al-Shami, L. (2018). Burning Country: Syrians in Revolution and War, 2nd ed. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar

Yin, R. (2008). Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Younis, A. (1995). The Coming of the Arabic-Speaking People to the United States. Edited by Kayal, P.. New York: Center for Migration Studies.Google Scholar

Zarnett, D. (2015). Transnationalized domestic contention: Explaining the varying levels of western solidarity given to Kurds and Palestinians. In Gerges, F., ed., Contentious Politics in the Middle East: Popular Resistance and Marginalized Activism beyond the Arab Uprisings. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 197–228.Google Scholar

Zepeda-Millán, C. (2017). Latino Mass Mobilization: Immigration, Racialization, and Activism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ziadeh, R. (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. New York: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Secondary Sources

Abdulhamid, A. (2011). Mutiny in the Syrian Army? Al Jazeera English, April 27. www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2011/4/27/mutiny-in-the-syrian-army Google Scholar

Germano, R. (2009). The Other Side of Immigration.Google Scholar

Ishaq, S. (2012). Karama Has No Walls.Google Scholar

Kalin, A. and Lukacs, O. (2014). Red Lines.Google Scholar

Omeish, A. (2011). Libya 2011: Through the Fire. www.aljazeera.com/program/featured-documentaries/2018/2/18/libya-2011-through-the-fire.Google Scholar

Piscatella, J. (2013). #ChicagoGirl: The Social Network Takes on a Dictator.Google Scholar

Al Jazeera English. (2011a). Gaddafi blames uprising on al-Qaeda. February 24. www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/2/24/gaddafi-blames-uprising-on-al-qaeda.Google Scholar

Al Jazeera English. (2011b). UN rights body urges Libya action. February 25. www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/2/25/un-rights-body-urges-libya-action.Google Scholar

Amos, D. (2020). Syrian war crimes trial resumes in Germany. National Public Radio, Morning Edition, May 21. www.npr.org/2020/05/21/859991380/syrian-war-crimes-trial-resumes-in-germany.Google Scholar

Bachelor, L. (2014). HSBC accused of closing UK bank accounts held by Syrians. Guardian, August 8. http://www.theguardian.com/money/2014/aug/08/hsbc-accused-closing-bank-accounts-syrians.Google Scholar

Badran, T. (2018). “Ambassador Samantha Power lied to my face about Syria,” by Kassem Eid. The Tablet, February 27. www.tabletmag.com/sections/israel-middle-east/articles/samantha-power-kassem-eid-syria.Google Scholar

Bittar, Y. (2013). Syria witness: “She refused to even look at me”. Middle East Voices, February 18. http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2013/02/syria-witness-she-refused-to-even-look-at-me-94597/.Google Scholar

Black, I. (2011). Gaddafi threatens retaliation in Mediterranean as UN passes resolution. Guardian, March 17. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/17/gaddafi-retaliation-mediterranean-libya-no-fly-zone.Google Scholar

Brand, L. (2014). The stakes and symbolism of voting from abroad. Washington Post, Monkey Cage blog, June 5. www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/06/05/the-stakes-and-symbolism-of-voting-from-abroad/.Google Scholar

Bugaighis, M. and Buisier, M. (2003). Why the American Libyan Freedom Alliance (ALFA)? http://www.libya-watanona.com/letters/v2003b/v02nov3a.htm.Google Scholar

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2013). Syria in Crisis: The Syrian National Council. Diwan Blog, Malcom H. Kerr Carnegie Middle Easter Center, September 25. http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=48334.Google Scholar

Charbonneau, L. and Evans, D. (2012). Syria in civil war, U.N. official says. Reuters, June 12. www.reuters.com/article/us-syria/syria-in-civil-war-u-n-official-says-idUSBRE85B0DZ20120612.Google Scholar

Cornwell, S. (2013). U.S. providing some lethal aid to Syrian rebels: Opposition spokesman. Reuters, September 10. www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-usa-rebels/u-s-providing-some-lethal-aid-to-syrian-rebels-opposition-spokesman-idUSBRE9891EZ20130910.Google Scholar

Devi, S. (2012). Syrian diaspora laments opposition’s disunity. National, October 14. http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/syrian-diaspora-laments-oppositions-disunity.Google Scholar

Eid, K. (2017). I survived a sarin gas attack. The New York Times, April 7. www.nytimes.com/2017/04/07/opinion/what-its-like-to-survive-a-sarin-gas-attack.html.Google Scholar

Farooq, U. (2015). The hunted. Foreign Policy, April 2. http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/02/the-hunted-islam-karimov-assassination-istanbul-russia-putin-islamic-state-human-rights/.Google Scholar

Fisher, K. (2011). Protestors arrested for tearing down Qaddafi pictures at Libyan mission. WUSA 9 News, February 25. http://foggybottom.wusa9.com/news/news/protestors-arrested-tearing-down-qaddafi-pictures-libyan-mission/54432.Google Scholar

Gaylon, S. (2013). Raed and Razan, and on building functional citizens. Medium, December 30. https://medium.com/@shiyamg/raed-and-razan-and-on-building-functional-citizens-61df08b5a2a4.Google Scholar

Hastings, R. (2012). Neighbours from hell: How Syria’s war hit an Acton street. Independent, March 19. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/neighbours-from-hell-how-syrias-war-hit-an-acton-street-7576814.html.Google Scholar

Hill, E. (2011). Libyans in US allege coercion. Al Jazeera English, February 17. www.aljazeera.com/features/2011/2/17/libyans-in-us-allege-coercion.Google Scholar

Hollersen, W. (2012). Syrian in Berlin channels aid to embattled countrymen. Spiegel Online, March 16. http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syrian-in-berlin-channels-aid-to-embattled-countrymen-a-821853.html.Google Scholar

Ighneiwa, I. Libya: Our home. http://www.libya-watanona.com/libya/.Google Scholar

Knickmeyer, E. Yemen’s double game. (2010). Foreign Policy, December 7. https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/12/07/yemens-double-game-2/.Google Scholar

Kofman, J. (2011). Resistance in Tripoli: Risking life with covert acts of defiance. ABC News, June 2. https://abcnews.go.com/International/anti-gadhafi-activists-movement-libya-underground/story?id=13746119.Google Scholar

Kossaify, E. (2020). Caesar Act sends Syria’s Bashar Assad a stark reality check. Arab News, June 16. www.arabnews.com/node/1690791/middle-east.Google Scholar

MacFarquhar, N. (2013). A very busy man behind the Syrian civil war’s casualty count. The New York Times, April 9. www.nytimes.com/2013/04/10/world/middleeast/the-man-behind-the-casualty-figures-in-syria.html.Google Scholar

Malek, A. (2013). From Houston AC repairman to Syrian border camp mayor. Al Jazeera America, September 12. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/9/12/the-mayor-of-thesyrianidpcamp.html.Google Scholar

McKenzie, D. (2011). From deep inside Tripoli, displays of defiance. CNN, July 12. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/07/libya.tripoli.rebel/.Google Scholar

Meek, J., Bas, E., Christie, M., and Madden, P. (2017). FBI probes murder of Syrian-American journalist who sought to expose Assad regime abuses. ABC News (November 28). https://abcnews.go.com/International/fbi-probing-murder-syrian-american-journalist-mother-turkey/story?id=51436199.Google Scholar

Moss, D. M. (2017). Why so many syrians living abroad support U.S. intervention. Monkey Cage blog, The Washington Post, April 19. www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/19/why-so-many-syrians-living-abroad-support-u-s-intervention/.Google Scholar

Myers, S. (2011). U.S. and allies say Syria leader must step down. New York Times, August 18. www.nytimes.com/2011/08/19/world/middleeast/19diplo.html.Google Scholar

National Public Radio. (2011). Libyan Americans work to maintain ties to homeland. Talk of the Nation, March 3. www.npr.org/2011/03/03/134235473/Libyan-Americans-Work-To-Maintain-Ties-To-Homeland.Google Scholar

National Public Radio. (2013). Syrian activist seeks support from Syrian-Americans. All Things Considered, December 22. www.npr.org/2013/12/22/256351915/syrian-activist-seeks-support-from-syrian-americans.Google Scholar

Nordheimer, J. (1984). Libyan exiles in Britain live in fear of Qaddafi assassins. New York Times, April 26. www.nytimes.com/1984/04/26/world/libyan-exiles-in-britain-live-in-fear-of-qaddafi-assassins.html.Google Scholar

O’Bagy, E. (2012). Disorganized like a fox. Foreign Policy, June 29. http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/06/29/disorganized-like-a-fox/.Google Scholar

O’Grady, S. (2014). Holocaust Museum Displays Echoes of Nazi Era in Syria War Photos. Foreign Policy, October 16. https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/10/16/holocaust-museum-displays-echoes-of-nazi-era-in-syria-war-photos/.Google Scholar

Office of the Press Secretary. (2011). Remarks by President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron of the United Kingdom in joint press conference in London, United Kingdom. The White House, May 25. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/05/25/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-united-kingdom-joint-.Google Scholar

Parvaz, D. (2011). Expats join Syrian revolution from afar. Al Jazeera English, September 8. www.aljazeera.com/features/2011/9/8/expats-join-syrian-revolution-from-afar.Google Scholar

Public Broadcasting Service. (2012). Are Syrian spies keeping tabs on opposition activists in U.S.? PBS NewsHour, January 3. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/world-jan-june12-syria_01-03/.Google Scholar

Railton, J. S. (2012). Can you get around an internet shutdown? July 27. www.johnscottrailton.com/the-voices-feeds/.Google Scholar

Seale, P. (1982). Bloodbath at Hama reflects Paranoia of Syrian leadership. Globe and Mail, May 11.Google Scholar

Sengupta, S. (2017). Loose definition of terrorism upends a Syrian asylum seeker’s life. New York Times, June 23. www.nytimes.com/2017/06/23/world/middleeast/immigration-asylum-syria-terrorism.html.Google Scholar

Siddique, H. and Borger, J. (2013). Family of British surgeon who died in Syria criticise UK government. The Guardian, December 18. www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/dec/18/family-surgeon-abbas-khan-syria-uk-government.Google Scholar

Simon, M. and Bolduan, K. (2019). He smuggled war crimes evidence and begged the US for help. Now Congress is finally acting and set to sanction Syria. CNN, December 17, www.cnn.com/2019/12/17/politics/defense-caesar-syria-bill/index.html.Google Scholar

Ward, C. (2012). Doctor returns to Syria from U.S. to help rebels. CBS News, October 12. www.cbsnews.com/news/doctor-returns-to-syria-from-us-to-help-rebels/.Google Scholar

Yamin, B., Moubayed, S., Barq, M., and Stifo, G. (2017). Don’t be fooled: Assad is no friend of Syria’s Christian minorities. The Hill, May 11. https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/religion/332938-dont-be-fooled-assad-is-no-friend-of-syrias-christian-minorities.Google Scholar

Book contents

References

Summary

References

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive