Index
Aano, Jakob, 105,
Abitur exams
desire to increase graduates, 118
equalization of, 50
for girls, 52
introduction, 44
Prussia, 44
“abnormal schools” (abnormskoler), 34
Adenauer, Konrad, 76
agrarian interests
political alliances, 17
AKP (Arbeidernes Kommunistiparti), 67
allgemeine Fortibildungsschule, 52
Allgemeiner Deutscher Lehrerinnenverein, 80
Allied Control Council
Directive No. 54, 57
anti-reform coalitions, 6
anti-socialism, 52
Arbeitsgemeinschaft von Schulpflegschaften im Regierungsbezirk Münster, 136
Archer, Margaret, 8
Arnold, Karl, 57
ascription versus achievement, 60
Association for Freedom of Research, 136
Association of German Catholic Female Teachers (VkdL), 80, 136
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
Association of Education and Upbringing, 86, 129
connections to political parties, 86
consent to comprehensive school reform, 143
opposition to Citizens’ Action movement, 140
support for Hauptschule, 140
Association of Education and Upbringing (West Germany), 89
Association of German Lower Secondary Schoolteachers, 82
Association of Norwegian Housewives, 215
Association of Norwegian Secondary Schoolteachers, 89, 90
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
Langeland, Kjeld, 104
leanings and makeup, 90
objection to nine years of obligatory schooling, 104
on abolition of grading, 109
opposition to folkeskole law of 1959, 98
Association of Philologists, 82, 139
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
connections to political parties, 86
emphasis on Gymnasium,
leanings and makeup, 89
opposition to comprehensive schooling, 119
Association of Philologists (West Germany), 89
Austad, Tore, 113
Balduin, Albert, 129
barneskole (children’s school), 1
BdF, 224
Beckedorff, Ludolph von, 45
Berufsschulen (vocational schools), 52
Bismarck, Otto von, 46
Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne, 31
Blakset, Leiv, 114
boarding schools,
Bondevik, Kjell, 7, , 104, 105, 109
Christian schooling and, 154,
private schooling and, 160
youth school size and, 181
Borgen, Hans
on homemaking for boys, 219
Bovim, Hans, 156
Bremen Plan (Bremer Plan),
British Butler Act (1944), 42
Brüning, Heinrich
austerity measures and education, 55
Brunn, Anke, 124
Bull, Trygve,
Bund Evangelischer Lehrer, 85
case studies
as methodology, 252
Catholic Church
education reform, 19
Catholic consolidation, 48
Catholic movement (Germany), 17
Catholic population (Germany 1871–1987),
Catholic private schools, postwar
funding and reestablishment, 167
Catholic teachers’ associations, 86
Catholic Teachers’ Association, 80
Catholic Volksschulen (NRW) 1953–69,
CDU (NRW), 57, 80, 84
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
leadership in government, 89
leanings and makeup, , 78
on common schooling, 168
on private schools, 169
on rural school centralization,
opposition to centralization, 185
opposition to education reforms, 131,
presence, 76
rural schooling, 184
strengthening,
support for Association of Philologists’ opposition to cooperative schools, 136
support for parallel schooling,
CDU (West Germany), 89
against social liberal education politics,
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 149
anti-communist, 206
concerns for curriculum over organization, 138
cross-class alliance, 149
Hamburg conference (1964), 120
manifesto of 1972 and gender roles,
manifesto of 1976, 204
opposition to education reforms, 120
reform-mindedness,
centralization
rural-urban cleavage,
centralization of schooling,
and cooperative schools, 192
Center Party (Norway), 17, 88, 89, 97
consent to comprehensive school reform, 143
curricular concerns, 180
folkeskole centralization and,
leanings and makeup, 88
on abolition of ability grouping, 113
on secular schooling, 152
rural strengths, 176
school decentralization, 176
school size and, 182
strength post–Second World War, 66
support for nynorsk, 194
Christian democratic hegemony, 24
Christian democrats (Germany)
success in education reform, 64
Christian Democrats (Norway), 15, 88, 89, 97
antagonism toward Labor Party, 114
consent to comprehensive school reform, 143
leanings and makeup, 88
on abolition of ability grouping, 113
strength post–Second World War, 66
Christian education (Norway),
Christian Democrat support for, 151
hours required and conflict with comprehensive schooling requirements, , 158
Labor Party (Norway), 151
party stances, , 162
role of Christian organizations, 152
Christian VI, king of Denmark and Norway, 30
Christians, Clemens, 121
Christie, Hartvig Caspar,
Church of Norway
church input into curriculum,
Citizens’ Action movement,
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
class cleavage, 17, 34, 60, 88, 89, 251
current relevance, NRW, 257
Norwegian language struggle,
perpetuation by unequal schooling, 94
Prussia, 60
class differences
antagonism to comprehensive school reform, 146
cleavage structures
education politics, 1980s–present,
cleavage theory, 1, 3, 11,
and comparative welfare states, 247
interdependencies, 15
political parties, 15
cleavages, 22, 23, 60
and coalitions, 244
cross-interest coalitions and, 3
defined,
gender cleavage, 23
rural-urban cleavage, 23
salience of,
cleavages (Germany)
communist-socialist cleavage, 24
conservative antagonist alliance, 24
cross-interest coalitions, 24
state-church cleavage, 24
cleavages (Norway)
education politics, 246
cleavages (NRW)
education politics,
cleavages, crosscutting,
expressed in language debates, 236
Norwegian class cleavages and,
education policy expressions,
stabilization for coalition building, 234
coalitions, 13, 15,
and cleavages, 244
anti-reform, 6
internal CDU coalitions, 150
Norwegian Labor party and, 150
primary schoolteachers, 3
religious population, 3
rural populations, 3
women’s movement, 3
coeducation, 34, 223
Catholic opposition to, 225
liberal and social democratic support for, 225
rarer in Catholic areas, 224
Cologne, 48
common Volksschulen (NRW) 1953–69,
communism in Germany
communist youth organizations, 202
nonorthodox varieties of communism, 202
“orthodox” communism, 202
Communist Party (Norway), 67
Comparative Manifesto Project (CMP), 9
comparative welfare state analysis
agrarian parties and, 248
agrarian party involvement, 249
gender cleavage, 249
salient cleavages,
comprehensive “detracking” reforms, 7
comprehensive education
1990s reform, 115
as overcoming class divisions, 38
as practicing “class struggle in the classrooms,” 205
coalitions, 6
Germany, 61
in Norway, 1
left party support for, 8
liberal parties and, 6
motivations, 1860s–90s, 34
policy, 43
primary schools (Norway), 60
public support for, 8
right party skepticism of, 8
seen as socialism,
sidelined by denominational schooling debates, 175
social democracy and, 6
social reforms, 34
tracking and grouping, 97
comprehensive school reform
consent, 143
equality of opportunity, 142
ideological arguments,
ideological divides within the left, 142
Norwegian left and, 142
protagonism, 143
role of experimental schools,
skepticism toward competition, 142
successful implementations, 6
comprehensive school reform, antagonism, 143
Conservative Party (Norway), 145
Hauptschule reform, 145
parental rights, 145
comprehensive school reform (Germany), 1
antagonists, 143
consenters, 143
current-day party stances,
demand for (Prussia),
failure of implementation,
German left and,
NRW, 57
protagonists, 143
reduced cleavages, present-day, 257
Reichstag, 52
teachers’ organizations, present status, 258
Weimar Republic, 54
comprehensive school reform (Norway), 1
class cleavage, 262
consenters, 144
current state of,
current-day party stances,
protagonists, 144
teachers’ organizations, 261
comprehensive school reform (NRW),
end of experimental status, 116
comprehensive school reform (Prussia)
ladder-system of education, 60
comprehensiveness
defined, 1
compromise, , 23
Conservative Party (Norway), 15, 31, 38, 43, 66, 89,
ability grouping, 103
curricular concerns, 113
education policy manifesto of 1957,
founding of, 31
leanings and makeup, 88
manifesto of 1973, 111
manifestos, 103
on abolition of ability grouping, 113
on abolition of grading,
on differentiation,
on secular schooling, 152
resistance to samnorsk, 194
strength post–Second World War, 66
youth school reform and,
Continental welfare states, 3
cooperative comprehensive schools,
Catholic opposition to, 139
CDU (NRW) proposal,
CDU shift to opposition, 134
debate on law to introduce,
defined, 134
introduction to NRW parliament, 134
leading to integrated comprehensive schooling, 135
opposition to, ,
passage of law (1977), 139
perceived as threat to Gymnasium,
repeal of law, 141
rural opposition to, 139
cooperative schools
and centralization of schooling, 192
Council for Homemaking, 221
crosscutting cleavages, 262
and cross-interest coalitions, 244
gender cleavage (Germany), 240
welfare state analysis, 251
curricular reform, failure of, 107
curriculum (Norway), 92
curriculum (Prussia)
classical languages, 44
non-pietistic subjects, 46
religious education, 46
subjects beyond piety, 32
curriculum (Reichstag), 52
curriculum development (1936–9), 40
Danish-Norwegian church
role in education, 30
Dawes Plan of 1924,
Deidesheimer Guidelines of 1969, 126
denominational schooling, 46, 121
crosscutting cleavages, 237
post–Second World War, 59
secularization of, 118
denominational schooling (Norway), 30
denominational schooling (NRW), 117,
Catholicism in NRW, 164
German educational reform, 19
German history with, 163
Protestant weak support for,
reintroduction of, postwar, 166
restored in NRW, 58
denominational schooling (postwar)
support by Catholic Church, 166
detracking
and social democrats, 7
Deutscher Beamtenbund, 85
Deutscher Bildungsrat (West Germany), 87
Deutscher Lehrerverein (DLV), 80
Deutscher Philologenverband, 82
differentiation debate (Norway)
abolition of permanent ability grouping, 112
end of differentiation, 115
organizational vs. pedagogical, ,
primary school, 111
youth school, 111
Djupvik, Olav,
Dokka, Hans-Jørgen, 106
Dørum, Odd Einar,
Education and Science Workers’ Union, 79, 80, 89, 117, 135
connections to political parties, 85
protagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
support for integrated comprehensive schooling,
education and state building, 44
“Educational-Political Guidelines” (SPD, 1964), 118
education politics
compromises and coalitions,
education politics (Norway)
anti-communism, 150
center-periphery cleavage, 150
centralization, 150
coalitions, 150
gender, 150
language, 150
political parties, 74
Protestant church and, 76
religion, 150
rural-urban cleavage, 150
education policy councils, 76
teachers’ associations,
trade unions, 76
education politics (NRW)
CDU internal coalitions, 150
communist-socialist cleavage, 150
state-church cleavage, 150
Education Politics on Clear Paths – a Program of CDU/CSU Priorities (1972), 127
education reform
and nation-building, 32
built from prior conflicts,
Catholic Church and, 19
Norway, 1850s–1860s, 32
Norway, 1860s–1890s, 32
education reform (Prussia), 45
education reform (West Germany)
orientation years/transition, 117
Elternverein Nordrhein-Westfalen, 136
enhetsskole, 260
enhetsskolekomiteen, 37
equal rights in family and marriage law (Germany), 226
equality of opportunity, , 142
debates about how to accomplish,
through integrated comprehensive schooling, 124
Evers, Carl-Heinz, 123
fairness of opportunity
in contrast to equality of opportunity, 131
FDP (NRW), 57, 80
inclusion of NSDAP officials, 78
leanings and makeup, 78
manifesto of 1962, 172
opposition to Ersatzschulfinanzgesetz, 171
opposition to orientation years, 130
support for centralization, 185
FDP (West Germany), 60, 89
consent to comprehensive school reform, 143
leanings and makeup, 89
liberalization, 124
manifestos and women, 228
Open School (Offene Schule),
Stuttgart Guidelines for Liberal Education Politics (1972),
support for cooperative schools, 135
federalism in Germany, 6
Fellesprogrammet, 41
fellesskole, 260
female teachers, 34, 69, 80
access to education, 213
cooperative school antagonism, 145
fight for recognition for women’s work, 213
teacher organizations, 80
Female Teachers’ Association, 213
concern with homemaker education, 215
on comprehensive school reform, 215
Female Teachers’ Organization, 69
Fernau, Friedrich Wilhelm,
Filologenes og realistenes landsforening, 69
First World War, 53
folkehøyskole, 34
folkeskole centralization
Center Party (Norway) and,
rural schooling (Norway) and,
Folkeskole Committee, 101
folkeskole law of 1959,
and Christianity in the curriculum, 152
debate,
financial and operational concerns,
language standards, 196
opposition to,
opposition to comprehensive schooling,
opposition to parallel schooling,
Førde, Einar, , 115
fortsettelsesskole, 34
Fostervoll, Kåre, 42
Framhaldsskolelærerlaget, 69
Fredriksfryd, Erling, , 97,
French Paul Langevin Commission in 1947, 42
Funcke, Liselotte, 171
gender cleavage, , 212,
among Norwegian parties, 224
education in Norway,
education in NRW,
education politics, 240
gender roles
party manifestos,
General German Teachers’ Association (Allgemeiner Deutscher Lehrerverein), 48
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 136
Gerhardsen, Einar, 41
German anti-communism,
against comprehensive education, 201
as an integrative ideology, 203
effects of East Germany, 202
opposition within political parties, , 212
resolution against KPD members, 202
within the unions,
German Educational Council, 87, 120
integrated comprehensive school experimentation, 122
Structural Plan for the Education System (1970), 124
German National People’s Party, 54
German People’s Party, 54
German political parties
CDU, 24
Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 17
Communist Party (DKP), 17
Communist Party (KPD), 17
FDP, 24
German National People’s Party, 54
German People’s Party, 54
Socialist Workers’ Party, 52
German Reich, 46
German schooling
reproduction of inequality in, 6
German workers’ unions, 79
German-Norwegian educational influence, 61
Germany
education policy field, post–Second World War,
federalism and institutional stickiness, 6
lack of comprehensiveness, 3
Nazi era structural legacies, 6
role of teachers’ unions, 64
state-church cleavage, 64
unified right, 92
Giesen, Peter, 187
girl’s education
Catholic, 225
girl’s education (NRW), 229
coeducation in Hauptschule, 231
Frauenoberschule, 230
Gymnasium reform, 231
in Volksschulen, 231
limits to career paths, 230
separate schooling, 240
Gjerde, Bjartmar, 107,
Gjøstein current, 38
Gjøsteen, O.G., 38
Gleichschaltung, 41
Gotha, 52
Göttingen Resolutions (1964),
Götz, Volker, 210
Grätz, Reinhard,
Green, Andy, 8
Grøndahl, Kirsti, 114
Grundschule, 117
grunnskole
introduction of (1969),
Gymnasium (private)
primarily for Catholic girls, 166
Gymnasium (public)
not denominational, 166
Haga, Borghild Bondevik,
Hamburg Agreement, 120
Hauglin, Otto, 151
Hauptschule, 80, , 120, 125, 172
decoupled and secularized, 121
homemaking for boys and girls, 232
non-denominational, 165
pedagogical reform, 135
reinvigoration mid-1970s,
versus Abitur tracking,
hegemony, 14
Heidenheimer, Arnold, 6
Herrlitz, Hans Georg, 44
Herzberg, Ernst Günther, 185
historical comparison
as methodology, 252
homemaking as school subject,
as a vocational subject,
commissions on the subject,
gender parity in, ,
in party manifestos, 216
upper-secondary housewife schools, 221
homogeneity, role of, 6
Hörner, Wolfgang, 8
“housewife schools” (husmorskoler), 213
høyere skole, 34
humanistische Gymnasien, 50
ideology, 14
Independent Social Democratic Party, 53
Ingebretsen, Smitt, 43
integrated comprehensive schooling (NRW), 118, ,
1970s reform movement,
ability grouping included, 122
abolition of parallel schooling, 129
anti-capitalism and, 122
as additional, not replacement, 141
opposition to, 122
intrinsic motivation, 40
Karstensen, Per, 182
Katholischer Lehrerverband, 80
KDFB, 224
Kerschensteiner, Georg, 52
Kjeldseth Moe, Peter
on homemaking for boys, 219
Koch, Hans, 139
Koht, Halvdan, 196
Koritzinsky, Theo, 223
Kortner, Olav,
KPD, 17
KPD (West Germany)
party ban, 202
Labor Party (Norway), 74, 89
and teachers’ unions, 74
antagonism toward Christian Democrats,
antagonism toward Conservative Party, 114
coalitions with rural periphery, 150
educational expansion, 41
founding of, 31
leadership in government, 89
leanings and makeup, 88
manifesto for 1966–9, 102
manifesto of 1969, 151
nine-year obligatory schooling,
on abolition of grading, , 109
on Christianity in the curriculum, 153
on secular schooling, 151
opposition to class cleavages,
protagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
radicalization, 38
stance on grades, 1
stance on secondary schooling, 38
successful navigation of cleavages, 23
support for pedagogical differentiation, 101
support for samnorsk, 194
tracking and grouping, 43
youth school reform, 184
Landeselternschaft der Gymnasien in Nordrhein-Westfalen, 136
Landesschulpflegschaft Nordrhein-Westfalen, 136
landsmål, 31
landsskuleloven, 36
Langeland, Kjell, 159
language of teaching, 33
language reform, 40
language struggle, Norwegian, 76,
“moderate” bokmål,
1959 language standard for schoolbooks, 195
and schooling,
center-periphery cleavage, 201
crosscutting cleavages, 236
history of, 193
identity and emotional investment, , 208
language movement organizations, 195
maintaining two standard languages, 194
nynorsk as more pure,
opposition to samnorsk, 195
parental voting rights in schools, 196
parties and school language voting, 196
party coalitions, 201
party stances on,
samnorsk, 193
support for bokmål, 195
Vogt Committee, 196
written language reform, 1937, 40
written language struggle, 31
Latin education, 50
Laurien, Hanna-Renate, 121
Law on the Regulation of Schools, 169
liberal parties (West Germany)
acceptance of Christian common schooling, 165
liberal parties and comprehensive education, 6
Liberal Party (Norway), 15, 31, 38, 60, 66, 88, 89,
consent to comprehensive school reform, 143
founding of, 31
leanings and makeup, 88
on abolition of ability grouping,
on secular schooling, 152
strength post–Second World War, 66
support for samnorsk, 193
lov om allmueskolen på landet, 32
lov om den høyere skole, 33
lov om folkeskolen i kjøpstædene, 36
lov om forsøk i skolen, 93
lov om høiere almenskoler, 36
lov om offentlige skoler for den høiere Almendannelse, 33
Løvset, Mons Arntsen
on homemaking for boys, 220
male teachers, 69
Manow, Phillip, 248
Marshall, T. H., 12
Meisdalshagen, Olav
on homemaking for boys, 219
middle school, 33
Mittelschulen, 52
modern secondary education (Norway), 60
modernization (Prussia), 44
Moen, Lars, 42
Monrad, Marcus Jacob, 31
Müller, Detlef K., 8
Nagel, Karl, , 135
Nasjonal Samling, 41
National Socialist Teachers’ Union, 55
Nazi anti-Bolshevist ideology, 203
Nazi era and education (Germany),
Nordrhein-Westfalen-Programm 1975,
Norges lærerforening, 69
Norges Lærerinneforening, 69
Norges lærerlag, 69
normalplankomiteen, 36
Normalplanutvalget, 106
Norway
development of comprehensive education, 3
liberal alignment with working class, 60
political situation, post–Second World War, 65
population over time,
post-Napoleonic wars,
rural-urban cleavage, 60
school-political field, post–Second World War,
unified left, 92
Norwegian composition government, 1951–83,
Norwegian ministers of education, 1951–83,
Norwegian parliament
party makeup 1945–81,
Norwegian political parties
and teacher associations, 74
Communist Party, 67
Conservative Party and teachers’ associations, 74
income of party head offices over time, 72
leanings and makeup,
membership over time,
parliament, 1945–81,
Red Party, 67
Rødt, 67
Socialist People’s Party, 17
women in, 214
Norwegian teachers’ unions
budgets over time,
Female Teachers’ Association, 89
membership fees over time,
membership numbers over time,
Norwegian Teachers’ Organization, 69
Norwegian Teachers’ Association, 89, 109
Conservative Party and, 74
Labor Party and, 74
on abolition of grading, 109
protagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
Norwegian Women’s National Council, 214
Norwegian written languages
written language struggle, 40
November Revolution of 1918, 53
NRW, 6
disagreements over denominational schooling, 57
founding of, 57
ministers of education over time,
parties in government, over time,
population, 1816–2013,
NRW political parties, 76
party percentages in West German elections, 1949–83, 79
seats in parliament 1947–85,
NRW Working Group for Comprehensive Schooling, 87
NSDAP
1933 concordat with Vatican, 56
absorption of teacher organizations, 56
creation of elite schools, 56
curricular reform, 56
denominational schooling, 56
educational tracking, 56
exclusion of Jews universities, 56
Reichschulpflichtgesetz, 56
restrictions on women in university, 56
varieties of schools, 56
Oberrealschulen, 50
obligatory schooling, nine-year, 120, 142, 155, 158, 172,
and centralization, 189
CDU support for (West Germany), 131
NRW, 116
objections by teachers’ unions, 104
obligatory schooling, ten-year
CDU (West Germany) support for, 126
CDU withdrawal of support for, 131
Hamburg Agreement, 120
Lyzeum, 52
Norway, 38
SPD (West Germany) support for, 117
West German support for, 115
occupational bans
administrative practices,
impact on political parties,
opposition to tracked comprehensive schooling
Association of Norwegian Secondary Schoolteachers, 98
organizational v. pedagogical differentiation (Norway), ,
Österman, Marcus, 7
Ot. prp. nr. 30 (1958), Lov om folkeskolen, 94
parents’ associations, 87
parliamentary interventions
postwar,
parliamentary school commission (Norway 1920s), 36
Pedagogical Colleges
separation from denomination, 175
Picht, Georg, 118
political parties
funding and resources, 89
opposition to ability grouping, 102
support for pedagogical differentiation, 101
political parties (Norway)
and education politics, 243
population density (Norway 1845–1970),
power resources theory, 11,
and education politics, 243
antagonists, 12
class, defined, 12
consenters, 12
described, 12
education reform, 19
institutions, 12
protagonists, 12
relational aspects,
Primary School Committee (Grunnskolerådet), 76
primary school law of April 1920, 54
primary schoolteachers’ organizations, 40
Deutscher Lehrerverein (DLV), 80
gender cleavage, 90
state-church cleavage, 90
primary schools (Germany)
failed comprehensive education initiatives, 57
teacher opposition to comprehensive reforms, 149
primary schools (NRW)
denominational, 165
primary schools (Weimar Republic)
four-year comprehensive, 60
private schooling (NRW),
CDU and, 169
Center Party and, 169
funding of,
impact on denominational public schooling, 171
regulation, 169
private schools, decrease in, 40
Progress Party, 67
Protestant population (Germany 1871–1987),
Protestant Volksschulen (NRW) 1953–69,
Prussia
class cleavage, 60
liberal alignment with elites, 60
sectarian divide, 46
state-church cleavage, 60
Prussian education reforms, early nineteenth century, 44
public vs. private school
funding of, 166
Pürsten, Albert, 185
Quisling, Vidkun, 41
Randal, Håkon, 113
Realgymnasien, 50
Realgymnasium, 50
Realschule 1. Ordnung, 50
Realschulen, 50
homemaking for boys and girls, 232
makeup, 166
private, 166
public, 166
rural expansion, 190
Realschullehrerverband, 136
Red Party, 67
“Reservations against the Cooperative School,” 136
resistance to Nazi regime in Norway
teachers and, 41
riksmål, 31
Ringer, Fritz K., 8
Rodenstein, Heinrich, 118
Rødt, 67
Rogstad, Anna, 214
Røiseland, Bert, 98
Rokkanian theoretical framework
additional cleavages, 254
fruitfulness for study of education politics,
unstudied potentials,
Røssum, Ola O., 109
rural population (Germany 1875–2000),
rural school centralization
party stances on,
rural schooling
parallel schooling, , 36
Sammenfatning og utsyn, 42
samnorsk
curriculum development (1936–39), 40
Samordningsnemnda for skoleverket, 42
Scheidemann, Philip, 53
Schmidt, Helmut, 83
school experimentation (Norway),
ability grouping, 101
nine-year obligatory schooling,
parallel schooling controversy,
school reform, Germany, 1959
additional school years, 117
school size,
school supervision law of 1872 (Schulaufsichtsgesetz), 46
schooling, Norway, pre-1950,
Christian pietism, 30
comprehensive education, development of, 34
gender divisions in classes, 30
Latin schools vs. middle schools, 30
parallel schooling (urban),
parliamentary interventions, 33,
quality of comprehensive education, 33
secondary education, early 1800s, 30
schools, centralization of, 36
Schulordnungsgesetz, 169
Schütte, Ernst, 123
Schütz, Werner, 118,
Schwier, Heinz, 209
secondary schoolteachers
political influence, 6
secondary schooling (Prussia)
state-building, 44
secondary schools (Norway)
teacher opposition to comprehensive reforms, 149
Sekundarschule, 256
Seland, Karstein, 222
Senterpartiet, 38
Sethne, Anna, 223
Skard, Torild, 197
social citizenship, 12
social democracy, 60
social democracy and comprehensive education, 6
social democratic reform (Norway), 23
social democrats
comparative,
education and,
social democrats (Norway)
success in education reform, 64
social democrats (West Germany)
acceptance of Christian common schooling, 165
social exclusivity, 44
socialist heritage and communist threat
impact on political parties, 209
Socialist People’s Party
opposition to youth school, 104
protagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
support for pedagogical differentiation,
Socialist People’s Party (Norway), 17
Socialist Workers’ Party
founding, 52
Sogn, Karen, 113
SPD (NRW), 57, 76, 80, 84, 117, 141
German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB) and, 77
leanings and makeup,
manifesto of 1962, , 186
manifesto of 1975,
on denominational schooling,
on reform,
on rural school centralization, 188
opposition to CDU on elitism, 134
opposition to dwarf schools, 184
opposition to Ersatzschulfinanzgesetz, 171
support for centralization, 184
Volksschulen reform and, 188
SPD (West Germany), 52, 53, 54, 89, 117
Federal Arbitration Commission, 211
gender and employment, 228
internal struggles over communism,
manifesto of 1957 and gender issues, 227
opposition to Simultanschule, 54
protagonism to comprehensive school reform, 143
socialist heritage and communist threat, 209
student socialism, 209
support for denominational schooling, 165
support for integrated comprehensive schooling, 127
St. meld. nr. 9 (1954), 43
standards, implementation of, 36
state role in education sector,
state-building and educational reforms, 6
state-church cleavage, 17, 88, 249, 251
and political party affiliations, 89
crosscutting cleavages, 238
Prussia, 60
Prussian education politics,
Steen, Reiulf, 113
Stephens, John D., 12
Stiehl regulations of 1854, 48
Stunde Null (zero hour), 58
Süvern, Johann Wilhelm, 45
Syrstad, Johan, 114
teacher seminaries, 48
teachers’ organizations (NRW)
membership numbers 1960–80,
teachers’ organizations (West Germany),
against integrated comprehensive schooling, 122
connections to political parties,
teachers’ unions, 9
Thrane, Marcus, 31
Thraniter movement, 31
Todal, Sivert, 98
tracking and grouping
and parental rights, 127
Norway, 92
reproduction of social inequality, 1
social inequalities and, 6
trade unions (West Germany)
support for integrated comprehensive schooling, 121
Union of Education, 261
universal suffrage (Prussia), 48
upper-secondary schooling
tracking and grouping, 1
upper-secondary schools, 44
urban population (Germany 1875–2000),
Vågen, Tormod, 156
van Kersbergen, Kees, 248
variation in student performance, 6
Verband der Elternschaften Deutscher Realschulen, 136
Verband Deutscher Realschullehrer, 82
Vereinsverband akademisch gebildeter Lehrer Deutschland, 82
VkdL (Verband katholischer deutscher Lehrerinnen), 80, 224
support for separate education for girls, 225
vocational education, 171
Vogt Committee, 199
Volmert, Anton,
West German government,
West German political parties
CSU, 83
leanings and makeup,
ministers of education over time,
parties in government, over time,
party head income over time,
party membership over time,
party staffing over time, 80,
West German teachers’ unions
Association of Education and Upbringing, 89
Association of Philologists, 89
GEW, 89
VKLD, 89
Wiborg, Susanne, 6
Wikborg, Erling, 97
Wisløff, Carl Fredrik, 156
Wisløff, Fredrik, 156
Women’s Front, 215
women’s movement (Germany)
and education politics,
Catholic women’s movement, 224
German Women’s Council, 224
German-Evangelical Women’s Union, 224
girls’ education, 225
Information Service for Women’s Questions, 224
women’s movement, Norway, second wave, 215
influence on party manifestos, 1970s, 216
women’s coup, 215
Women’s Union of the Labor Party, 214
Zook Commission (US), 57
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