Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T07:44:27.291Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Impact of Political Apologies on Public Opinion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 June 2021

Risa Kitagawa Open the ORCID record for Risa Kitagawa [Opens in a new window]  and
Jonathan A. Chu Open the ORCID record for Jonathan A. Chu [Opens in a new window]
Get access

Abstract

Apology diplomacy promises to assuage historical grievances held by foreign publics, yet in practice appears to ignite domestic backlash, raising questions about its efficacy. This article develops a theory of how political apologies affect public approval of an apologizing government across domestic and foreign contexts. The authors test its implications using large-scale survey experiments in Japan and the United States. In the surveys, the authors present vignettes about World War II grievances and randomize the nature of a government apology. They find that apology-making, both as statements acknowledging wrongdoing and as expressions of remorse, boosts approval in the recipient state. But in the apologizing state, backlash is likely among individuals with strong hierarchical group dispositions—manifested as nationalism, social-dominance orientation, and conservatism—and among those who do not consider the recipient a strategically important partner. This microlevel evidence reveals how leaders face a crucial trade-off between improving support abroad and risking backlash at home, with implications for the study of diplomatic communication and transitional justice.

Keywords

diplomacyEast Asiaforeign policypublic opinionsurvey experimentstransitional justice
Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 73 , Issue 3 , July 2021 , pp. 441 - 481
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agadjanian, Alexander, and Yusaku, Horiuchi. 2020. “Has Trump Damaged the US Image Abroad? Decomposing the Effects of Policy Messages on Foreign Public Opinion.” Political Behavior 42: 581–602. At https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9511-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al, Jazeera. 2020. “Algeria Seeks Apology from France over Colonial Past: President.” July 5. At https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/5/algeria-seeks-apology-from-france-over-colonial-past-president, accessed December 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Allan, Alfred, Allan, Maria M., Kaminer, Debra, and Stein, Dan J.. 2006. “Exploration of the Association between Apology and Forgiveness amongst Victims of Human Rights Violations.” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 24, no. 1: 87–102. At https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Tal, Daniel, Oren, Neta, and Nets-Zehngut, Rafi. 2014. “Sociopsychological Analysis of Conflict-Supporting Narratives: A General Framework.” Journal of Peace Research 51, no. 5: 662–75. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343314533984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barahona De, Brito, Alexandra, Carmen Gonzaléz-Enríquez, and Paloma, Aguilar, eds. 2001. The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Barkan, Elazar. 2000. The Guilt of Nations: Restitution and Negotiating Historical Injustices. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton. Google Scholar
Barkan, Elazar, and Alexander, Karn, eds. 2006. Taking Wrongs Seriously: Apologies and Reconciliation. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
BBC News. 2015. “Japan PM Abe’s ‘Deep Repentance’ over WW2 Role.” April 29. At https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-us-canada-32521648, accessed November 29, 2020.Google Scholar
BBC News. 2019. “Belgium Apology for Mixed-Race Kidnappings in Colonial Era.” April 4. At https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47817530, accessed June 22, 2020.Google Scholar
Becker, Elizabeth. 2001. “Army Admits G.I.’s in Korea Killed Civilians.” New York Times, January 11. At https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/11/world/army-admits-giacutes-in-korea-killed-civilians.html, accessed April 7, 2021.Google Scholar
Berinsky, Adam J., Huber, Gregory A., and Lenz, Gabriel S.. 2012. “Evaluating Online Labor Markets for Experimental Research: Amazon.com’s Mechanical Turk.” Political Analysis 20, no. 3: 351–68. At https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilder, Richard B. 2008. “The Role of Apology in International Law.” In Gibney, Mark, Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E., Jean-Marc, Coicaud, and Niklaus, Steiner, eds., The Age of Apology: Facing Up to the Past. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Blatz, Craig W., Day, Martin V., and Emily, Schryer. 2014. “Official Public Apology Effects on Victim Group Members’ Evaluations of the Perpetrator Group.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement 46, no. 3: 337–45. At https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatz, Craig W., and Philpot, Catherine. 2010. “On the Outcomes of Intergroup Apologies: A Review.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4, no. 11: 995–1007. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00318.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatz, Craig W., Karina, Schumann, and Michael, Ross. 2009. “Government Apologies for Historical Injustices.” Political Psychology 30, no. 2: 219–41. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00689.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borchers, Callum. 2016. “Obama’s Trip to Hiroshima, and the Looming Apology Tour’ Narrative.” Washington Post, May 10. At https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/05/10/obamas-trip-to-hiroshima-and-the-looming-apology-tour-narrative/, accessed May 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Branzinsky, Gregg A. 2019. “How Japan’s Failure to Atone for Past Sins Threatens the Global Economy.” Washington Post, August 11. At https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/08/11/how-japans-failure-atone-past-sins-threatens-global-economy/, accessed March 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Brooks, Deborah Jordan, and Valentino, Benjamin A.. 2011. “A War of One’s Own: Understanding the Gender Gap in Support for War.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75, no. 2: 270–86. At https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfr005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, Roy L. 1999. When Sorry Isn’t Enough: The Controversy over Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice. New York, N.Y.: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Ryan P., Wohl, Michael J. A., and Julie, Juola Exline. 2008. “Taking Up Offenses: Secondhand Forgiveness and Group Identification.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34, no. 10: 1406–19. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208321538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brutger, Ryan, and Kertzer, Joshua D.. 2018. “A Dispositional Theory of Reputation Costs.” International Organization 72, no. 3 : 693–724. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818318000188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buckley-Zistel, Susanne. 2009. “Nation, Narration, Unification? The Politics of History Teaching after the Rwandan Genocide.” Journal of Genocide Research 11, no. 1: 31–53. At https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520802703608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charnysh, Volha, Lucas, Christopher, and Singh, Prerna. 2015. “The Ties That Bind: National Identity Salience and Pro-Social Behavior toward the Ethni Other.” Comparative Political Studies 48, no. 3: 267–300. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014543103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiozza, Giacomo. 2015. “Does US Soft Power Have Consequences for US Security? Evidence from Popular Support for Suicide Bombing.” Korean Journal of International Studies 13, no. 1: 207–37. At https://doi.org/10.14731/kjis.2015.04.13.1.207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiozza, Giacomo, and Ajin, Choi. 2003. “Guess Who Did What: Political Leaders and the Management of Territorial Disputes, 1950–1990.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 47, no. 3: 251–78. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002703252364.Google Scholar
Christensen, Thomas J. 1999. “China, the US-Japan Alliance, and the Security Dilemma in East Asia.” International Security 23, no. 4: 49–80. At https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.23.4.49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chu, Jonathan, Ko, Jiyoung, and Liu, Adam. 2021. “Commanding Support: Values and Interests in the Rhetoric of Alliance Politics.” International Interactions. At https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2021.1898955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coulthard, Glen Sean. 2014. Red Skins, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, Michael. 2008. “‘It Wasn’t Us and We Didn’t Benefit’: The Discourse of Opposition to an Apology by Britain for Its Role in the Slave Trade.” Political Quarterly 79, no. 2: 252–59. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-923X.2008.00928.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Michael C., and Popoff, Rovana. 2004. “Reparations: Justice and Greed in Black and White.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 1, no. 1: 47–91. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X04040056.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Greiff, Pablo. 2008. “The Role of Apologies in National Reconciliation Processes: On Making Trustworthy Institutions Trusted.” In Mark Gibney, Rhoda Howard-Hassmann, E., Jean-Marc, Coicaud, and Niklaus, Steiner, eds., The Age of Apology: Facing Up To the Past, Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Denyer, Simon. 2019. “Japan-South Korea Ties ‘Worst in Five Decades’ as US Leaves Alliance Untended.” Washington Post, February 9. At https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/japan-south-korea-ties-worst-in-five-decades-as-us-leaves-alliance-untended/2019/02/08/f17230be-2ad8-11e9-906e-9d55b6451eb4_story.html, accessed March 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Drezner, Daniel W. 2008. “The Realist Tradition in American Public Opinion.” Perspectives on Politics 6, no. 1: 51–70. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592708080067.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dudden, Alexis. 2008. Troubled Apologies among Japan, South Korea, and the United States. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eichengreen, Barry. 2007. The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Espindola, Juan. 2013. “An Apology for Public Apologies? Transitional Justice and Respect in Germany.” German Studies Review 36, no. 2: 327–45. At https://doi.org/10.1353/gsr.2013.0060.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fette, Julie. 2008. “Apology and the Past in Contemporary France.” French Politics, Culture & Society 26, no. 2: 78–113. At https://doi.org/10.3167/fpcs.2008.260205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, Max. 2016. “Obama, Acknowledging US Misdeeds Abroad, Quietly Reframes American Power.” New York Times, September 7. At https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/08/world/americas/obama-acknowledging-us-misdeeds-abroad-quietly-reframes-american-power.html, accessed April 7, 2021.Google Scholar
Friedhoff, Karl, and Craig, Kafura. 2018. “American Views toward US-Japan Relations and Asia-Pacific Stability.” Chicago, III.: Chicago Council on Global Affairs, April 17. At https://www.thechicagocouncil.org/research/public-opinion-survey/american-views-toward-us-japan-relations-and-asia-pacific-security, accessed April 24, 2021.Google Scholar
Genron, NPO and East, Asia Institute. 2019. “The 7th Japan-South Korea Joint Public Opinion Poll (2019): Analysis Report on Comparative Data.” June 12. At www.genron-npo.net/en/opinion_polls/archives/5489.html, accessed March 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Gibney, Mark, Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E., Coicaud, Jean-Marc, and Steiner, Niklaus, eds. 2008. The Age of Apology: Facing Up to the Past. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Gibney, Mark, and Erik, Roxtrom. 2001. “The Status of State Apologies.” Human Rights Quarterly 23, no. 4: 911–39. At https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2001.0051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibney, Mark, and David, Warner. 2000. “What Does It Mean to Say I’m Sorry? President Clinton’s Apology to Guatemala and Its Significance for International and Domestic Law.” Denver Journal of International Law & Policy 28, no. 2: 223–33. At https://digitalcommons.du.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article= 1521&context=djilp, accessed April 26, 2021.Google Scholar
Gill, Kathleen. 2000. “The Moral Functions of an Apology.” Philosophical Forum 31, no. 1: 11–27. At https://doi.org/10.1111/0031-806X.00025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, Benjamin E., and Horiuchi, Yusaku. 2009. “Spinning the Globe? US Public Diplomacy and Foreign Public Opinion.” Journal of Politics 71, no. 3: 863–75. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609090768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, Benjamin E., and Horiuchi, Yusaku. 2012. “In Search of Soft Power: Does Foreign Public Opinion Matter for US Foreign Policy?” World Politics 64, no. 3 (July): 555–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887112000123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, Benjamin E., Yusaku, Horiuchi, and Kelly, Matush. 2020. “Does Public Diplomacy Sway Foreign Public Opinion? Identifying the Effect of High-Level Visits.” Manuscript. Australian National University, Dartmouth College, and Florida State University. At https://ssrn.com/abstract=3566347, accessed April 7, 2021.Google Scholar
Govier, Trudy, and Wilhelm, Verwoerd. 2002a. “The Promise and Pitfalls of Apology.” Journal of Social Philosophy 33, no. 1: 67–82. At https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9833.00124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Govier, Trudy, and Wilhelm, Verwoerd. 2002b. “Trust and the Problem of National Reconciliation.” Philosophy of the Social Sciences 32, no. 2: 178–205. At https://doi.org/10.1177/004931032002003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Jesse, Haidt, Jonathan, and Nosek, Brian A.. 2009. “Liberals and Conservatives Rely on Different Sets of Moral Foundations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96, no. 5: 1029-46. At https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groll, Elias. 2015. “Shinzo Abe Regrets but Declines to Apologize for Japan’s WWII Actions.” Foreign Policy, August 14. At https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/14/shinzo-abe-regrets-but-declines-to-apologize-for-japans-wwii-actions/, accessed April 26, 2021.Google Scholar
Hainmueller, Jens. 2012. “Entropy Balancing for Causal Effects: A Multivariate Reweighting Method to Produce Balanced Samples in Observational Studies.” Political Analysis 20, no. 1: 25–46. At https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Todd, and Keren, Yarhi-Milo. 2012. “The Personal Touch: Leaders’ Impressions, Costly Signaling, and Assessments of Sincerity in International Affairs.” International Studies Quarterly 56, no. 3: 560–73. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2012.00731.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hellaby, David, and Wallace, Brown. 1993. “Keating Silent on Mahathir Apology Calls.” Courier-Mail, November 26. At https://advance.lexis.com/api/permalink/22dbfc7d-8451-4e16-9836-3c6479d94bed/?context=1516831, accessed November 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Henley, Jon, Oltermann, Philip, and Boffey, Daniel. 2020. “European Colonial Powers Still Loth to Admit Historical Evils.” Guardian, March 11. At https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/11/european-colonial-powers-still-loth-to-admit-historical-evils, accessed November 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Herrmann, Richard K., Tetlock, Philip E., and Visser, Penny S.. 1999. “Mass Public Decisions on Go to War: A Cognitive-Interactionist Framework.” American Political Science Review 93, no. 3: 553–73. At https://doi.org/10.2307/2585574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, Mary. 1997. “Why Blair Deserves Bouquets for Famine Apology.” Irish Times, June 5. At https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/why-blair-deserves-bouquets-for-famine-apology-1.79268, accessed February 17, 2019.Google Scholar
Hu, Elise, and Camila, Domonoske. 2016. “Obama Makes Historic Visit to Hiroshima Memorial Peace Park.” NPR, May 27. At https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/05/27/479691439/president-obama-arrives-in-hiroshima-the-first-sitting-commander-in-chief-to-vis, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Hwang, Wongjae, Cho, Wonbin, and Wiegand, Krista. 2018. “Do Korean-Japanese Historical Disputes Generate Rally Effects?” Journal of Asian Studies 77, no. 3: 693–711. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911818000438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inamasu, Kazunori, Kohama, Shoko, Himichi, Toshiyuki, Mifune, Nobuhiro, Ohtsubo, Yohsuke, and Tago, Atsushi. 2020. “Crafting International Apologies That Work: A Conjoint Analysis Approach.” Manuscript. Kwansei-Gakuin University, Hokkaido University, Kochi University of Technology, Kobe University, and Waseda University. At https://www.dropbox.com/s/xsesufva7fdic6u/AOPSSS_International_Apology_ver2.pdf?dl=0, accessed April 26, 2021.Google Scholar
Independent. 2016. “Chilcot Report: Read Tony Blair’s Full Statement in Response to the Iraq War Inquiry.” July 6. At https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-tony-blair-read-response-statement-full-iraq-war-inquiry-a7123251.html, accessed February 17, 2019.Google Scholar
James, Matt. 2008. “Wrestling with the Past: Apologies, Quasi-Apologies, and Non-Apologies in Canada.” In Gibney, Mark, Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E., Jean-Marc, Coicaud and Niklaus, Steiner, eds., The Age of Apology: Facing Up To the Past, Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Jatmiko, Andi, and Niniek, Karmini. 2020. “Dutch King Apologizes for Colonial Killings in Indonesia.” Associated Press, March 10. At https://apnews.com/article/710e99cb8c427a19c5d5446311694aa4, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Jeffery, Renee. 2011. “When Is an Apology Not an Apology? Contrition Chic and Japan’s (Un)Apologetic Politics.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 65, no. 5: 607–17. At https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2011.613150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, John T., Jack, Glaser, Kruglanski, Arie W., and Sulloway, Frank J.. 2003. “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition.” Psychological Bulletin 129, no. 3: 339–75. At https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kafura, Craig. 2017. “ Public Opinion and the US-Japan Alliance at the Outset of the Trump Administration.” Chicago: Chicago Council on Global Affairs. At https://www.thechicagocouncil.org/research/public-opinion-survey/public-opinion-and-us-japan-alliance-outset-trump-administration, accessed April 24, 2021.Google Scholar
Kajimoto, Tetushi, and Linda, Sieg. 2018. “Japan’s Abe Aims for Constitution Change in Bid for Extended Term.” Reuters, September 10. At https://www.reuters.com/article/japan-politics/japans-abe-aims-for-constitution-change-in-bid-for-extended-term-idINKCN1LQ0BM, accessed October 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Karasawa, Minoru. 2002. “Patriotism, Nationalism, and Internationalism among Japanese Citizens: An Etic-Emic Approach.” Political Psychology 23, no. 4: 645–66. At https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertzer, Joshua D., and Brutger, Ryan. 2016. “Decomposing Audience Costs: Bringing the Audience Back into Audience Cost Theory.” American Journal of Political Science 60, no. 1: 234–49. At https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Bo-eun. 2019. “Korea-Japan Feud Is ‘Emotional and Political Issue.’” Korea Times, August 13. At http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2020/01/120_273871.html, accessed March 21, 2020.Google Scholar
Kitagawa, Risa, and Chu, Jonathan A.. 2021a. “Replication files for: The Impact of Political Apologies on Public Opinion.” Harvard Dataverse, V1. At https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/PGMX3H.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitagawa, Risa, and Chu, Jonathan A.. 2021b. “Supplementary material for: The Impact of Political Apologies on Public Opinion.” At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887121000083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosterman, Rick, and Seymour, Feshbach. 1989. “Toward a Measure of Patriotic and Nationalistic Attitudes.” Political Psychology 10, no. 2: 257–74. At https://doi.org/10.2307/3791647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, Ronald R. 2015. Narrative and the Making of US National Security. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kydd, Anthony. 1997. “Sheep in Sheep’s Clothing: Why Security Seekers Do Not Fight Each Other.” Security Studies 7, no 1: 114–55. At https://doi.org/10.1080/09636419708429336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kymlicka, William. 1995. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Laborde, Cécile. 2008. Critical Republicanism: The Hijab Controversy and Political Philosophy. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakshmanan, Indira A. R. 2001. “China Ties and Crew Hang on Semantics.” Boston Globe, April 11: 1.Google Scholar
Lazare, Aaron. 2004. On Apology. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Le, Monde. 2020. “Emmanuel Macron confie à l’historien Benjamin Stora une mission sur ‘la mémoire de la colonisation et de la guerre d’Algérie.’” July 24. At https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2020/07/24/emmanuel-macron-confie-a-l-historien-benjamin-stora-une-mission-sur-la-memoire-de-la-colonisation-et-de-la-guerre-d-algerie_6047236_3212.html, accessed December 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Lebow, Richard Ned. 2006. “The Memory of Politics in Postwar Europe.” In Richard Ned, Lebow, Wulf, Kansteiner, and Claudio, Fogu, eds., The Politics of Memory in Postwar Europe. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levendusky, Matthew S., and Horowitz, Michael C.. 2012. “When Backing Down Is the Right Decision: Partisanship, New Information, and Audience Costs.” Journal of Politics 74, no. 2: 323–38. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S002238161100154X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin-Greenberg, Erik. 2019. “Backing Up, Not Backing Down: Mitigating Audience Costs through Policy Substitution.” Journal of Peace Research 56, no. 4: 559–74. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343319832641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, Jennifer. 2008. Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Lind, Jennifer. 2009a. “Apologies in International Politics.” Security Studies 18, no. 3: 517–56. At https://doi.org/10.1080/09636410903132987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, Jennifer. 2009b. “The Perils of Apology: What Japan Shouldn’t Learn from Germany.” Foreign Affairs 88, no 3: 132–46. At https://www.jstor.org/stable/20699568.Google Scholar
Lind, Jennifer. 2010. “Apology Diplomacy at Hiroshima.” Atlantic, August 13. At https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2010/08/apology-diplomacy-at-hiroshima/61066/, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Löytömäki, Stiina. 2013. “The Law and Collective Memory of Colonialism: France and the Case of ‘Belated’ Transitional Justice.” International Journal of Transitional Justice 7, no. 2: 205–23. At https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijt005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margalit, Yotam. 2013. “Explaining Social Policy Preferences: Evidence from the Great Recession.” American Political Science Review 107, no. 1: 80–103. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055412000603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marrus, Michael R. 2007. “Official Apologies and the Quest for Historical Justice.” Journal of Human Rights 6, no. 1: 75–105. At https://doi.org/10.1080/14754830601098402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattes, Michaela, and Weeks, Jessica L. P.. 2019. “Hawks, Doves, and Peace: An Experimental Approach.” American Journal of Political Science 63, no. 1: 53–66. At https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClendon, Gwyneth H. 2016. “Race and Responsiveness: An Experiment with South African Politicians.” Journal of Experimental Political Science 3, no. 1: 60–74. At https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2015.10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mifune, Nobuhiro, Inamasu, Kazunori, Kohama, Shoko, Ohtsubo, Yohsuke, and Atsushi, Tago. 2019. “Social Dominance Orientation as an Obstacle to Intergroup Apology.” PLoS ONE 14, no. 1. At https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milanovic, Marko. 2016. “The Impact of the ICTY on the Former Yugoslavia: An Anticipatory Postmortem.” American Journal of International Law 110, no. 2: 233–59. At https://doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.110.2.0233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, David. 1995. On Nationality. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Minder, Raphael, and Elisabeth, Malkin. 2019. “Mexican Call for Conquest Apology Ruffles Feathers in Spain. And Mexico.” New York Times, March 27. At https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/27/world/americas/mexico-spain-apology.html, accessed November 15, 2020.Google Scholar
Minow, Martha. 2002. “Breaking the Cycles of Hatred.” In Rosenblum, Nancy L., ed., Breaking the Cycles of Hatred: Memory, Law, and Repair. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mironova, Vera, and Sam, Whitt. 2014. “Ethnicity and Altruism after Violence: The Contact Hypothesis in Kosovo.” Journal of Experimental Political Science 1, no. 2: 170–80. At https://doi.org/10.1017/xps.2014.18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mor, Ben D. 2006. “Public Diplomacy in Grand Strategy.” Foreign Policy Analysis 2, no. 2: 157–76. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2006.00025.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgenthau, Hans J. [1948] 1985. Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
National Archives, UK. 2006. “PM’s Article for the New Nation Newspaper (27 Nov 06).” At https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909022332/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page10487, accessed February 17, 2019.Google Scholar
Nobles, Melissa. 2008. The Politics of Official Apologies. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nobles, Melissa. 2014. “Revisiting the ‘Membership Theory of Apologies’: Apology Politics in Australia and Canada.” In Mihaela, Mihal and Mathias, Thaler, eds., On the Uses and Abuses of Political Apologies. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Nye, Joseph S., Jr. 2004. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York, N.Y.: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
O’Neill, Barry. 2001. Honor, Symbols, and War. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Onishi, Norimitsu. 2005. “Koizumi Apologizes for War; Embraces China and South Korea.” New York Times, August 16. At https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/16/world/asia/koizumi-apologizes-for-war-embraces-china-and-south-korea.html, accessed December 6, 2020.Google Scholar
Osiel, Mark J. 1995. “Ever Again: Legal Remembrance of Administrative Massacre.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 144, no. 2: 463–704. At https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3501&context=penn_law_review, accessed April 8, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pape, Robert A. 2005. “Soft Balancing against the United States.” International Security 30, no. 1: 7–45. At https://www.jstor.org/stable/4137457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearlman, Jonathan. 2011. “Chinese Australians Seek Govt Apology; Call to Acknowledge Discrimination Aimed at Early Immigrants.” Straits Times, July 11. At https://advance.lexis.com/api/permalink/6f305fdc-bc62-483a-96fb-32395d0a03da/?context=1516831, accessed June 22, 2020.Google Scholar
Philpot, Catherine R., and Hornsey, Matthew J.. 2011. “Memory for Intergroup Apologies and Its Relationship with Forgiveness.” European Journal of Social Psychology 41, no. 1: 96–106. At https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prather, Lauren. 2020. “Transnational Ties and Support for Foreign Aid.” International Studies Quarterly 64, no. 1: 133–47. At https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqz096.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Çidam, Atilla, Stewart, Andrew L., Zeineddine, Fouad Bou, Aranda, María, Aiello, Antonio, Chryssochoou, Xenia, Cichocka, Aleksandra, Christopher Cohrs, J., Durrheim, Kevin, Eicher, Véronique, Foels, Rob, Górska, Paulina, Lee, I-Ching, Licata, Laurent, Liu, James H., Li, Liu, Meyer, Ines, Morselli, Davide, Muldoon, Orla, Muluk, Hamdi, Papastamou, Stamos, Petrovic, Igor, Petrovic, Nebojsa, Prodromitis, Gerasimos, Prati, Francesca, Rubini, Monica, Saab, Rim, van Stekelenburg, Jacquelien, Sweetman, Joseph, Zheng, Wenwen, and Henkel, Kristen E.. 2013. “Social Dominance in Context and in Individuals: Contextual Moderation of Robust Effects of Social Dominance Orientation in 15 Languages and 20 Countries.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 4, no. 5: 587–99. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612473663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Sidanius, Jim, Stallworth, Lisa M., and Malle, Bertram F.. 1994. “Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 4: 741–63. At https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quek, Kai. 2017. “Type II Audience Costs.” Journal of Politics 79, no. 4: 1438–43. At https://doi.org/10.1086/693348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rathbun, Brian C., Kertzer, Joshua D., Jason, Reifler, Paul, Goren, and Scotto, Thomas J.. 2016. “Taking Foreign Policy Personally: Personal Values and Foreign Policy Attitudes.” International Studies Quarterly 60, no. 1: 124–37. At https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqv012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renner, Judith. 2016. “Germany-Poland: The Ritualisation of Apology.” In Christopher, Daase, Stefan, Engert, Michel-André, Horelt, Judith, Renner, and Renate, Strassner, eds., Apology and Reconciliation in International Relations: The Importance of Being Sorry. New York, N.Y.: Routledge.Google Scholar
Renteln, Alison Dundes. 2008. “Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” In Mark Gibney, Rhoda Howard-Hassmann, E., Jean-Marc, Coicaud, and Niklaus, Steiner, eds., The Age of Apology: Facing Up To the Past. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Rich, Motoko. 2018. “Japan Balks at Calls for New Apology to South Korea over ‘Comfort Women.’” New York Times, January 12. At https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/12/world/asia/japan-south-korea-comfort-women.html, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Robinson, Amanda Lea. 2016. “Nationalism and Ethnic-Based Trust: Evidence from an African Border Region.” Comparative Political Studies 49, no. 14: 1819–54. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016628269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rotberg, Robert I. 2006. “Apology, Truth Commissions, and Intrastate Conflict.” In Elazar, Barkan and Alexander, Karn, eds., Taking Wrongs Seriously: Apologies and Reconciliation. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Sadakuni, Seiko. 2016. “Obama-Shi Ni Shazai Motomezu, Hidankyo Jimukyokucho No ‘Gaman’” [in Japanese]. Asahi Shimbun, May 26. At https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASJ5T5S0NJ5TUTIL02Y.html, accessed October 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Sakurai, Joji. 2016. “Shinzo Abe’s Act of Peace at Pearl Harbor Masks a Hawkish Intent.” Financial Times, December 21. At https://www.ft.com/content/e26c4dee-c125-11e6-81c2-f57d90f6741a, accessed October 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Sala, Ilaria Maria. 2017. “Why Is the Plight of ‘Comfort Women’ Still So Controversial?” New York Times, August 14. At https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/14/opinion/comfort-women-japan-south-korea.html, accessed March 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Schneider, Claudia. 2008. “The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 617, no 1: 107–22. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208314359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Nina. 2014. “What Makes a State Apology Authoritative? Lessons from Post-Authoritarian Brazil.” In Mihaela, Mihal and Mathias, Thaler, eds., On the Uses and Abuses of Political Apologies. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Schultz, Kai. 2019. “India Still Awaits Apology from Britain for Massacre in Amritsar 100 Years Ago.” New York Times, April 13. At https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/13/world/asia/jallianwala-bagh-massacre-india-britain.html, accessed April 12, 2020.Google Scholar
Scislowska, Monika. 1995. “Yeltsin, Solzhenitsyn Decline to Attend Katyn Commemorations.” Associated Press Worldstream, May 31. At https://advance.lexis.com/api/document?collection=news&id=urn:contentItem:3SJD-W2M0-0070-1367-00000-00&context=1516831, accessed June 22, 2020.Google Scholar
Sidanius, James, and Felicia, Pratto. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergoup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sieg, Linda. 2013. “Japan’s Abe Has Chance to Show True Colors after Big Election Win.” Reuters, July 20. At https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-election/japans-abe-has-chance-to-show-true-colors-after-big-election-win-idUKBRE96J0BA20130721?edition-redirect=in, accessed October 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Smith, Nicholas. 2008. I Was Wrong: The Meanings of Apologies. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Soble, Jonathan. 2016. “Hiroshima Survivor Cries, and Obama Gives Him a Hug.” New York Times, May 27. At https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/28/world/asia/hiroshima-obama-visit-shigeaki-mori.html, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Soh, Chunghee Sarah. 1996. “The Korean ‘Comfort Women’: Movement for Redress.” Asian Survey 36, no. 12: 1226–40. At https://doi.org/10.2307/2645577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spears, Russell, Doosje, Bertjan, and Ellemers, Naomi. 1997. “Self-Stereotyping in the Face of Threats to Group Status and Distinctiveness: The Role of Group Identification.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23, no. 5: 538–53. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297235009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Takuya. 2019. “South Korean Speaker Floats Plan to Redress Wartime Laborers.” Asahi Shimbun, November 6. Available from the authors on request.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John C.. 1986. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior.” In Stephen, Worchel and Austin, William G., eds., Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, Ill.: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Takeda, Hajime. 2016. “Hiroshima Ni Kita Daitouryou No Hug to Kaku No Button: Houmon No Butaiura Wa.” Asahi Shimbun, May 31. At https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASJ5Z5DC9J5ZUHBI01G.html, accessed May 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Tavuchis, Nicholas. 1991. Mea Culpa: A Sociology of Apology and Reconciliation. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Charles. 1994. “The Politics of Recognition.” In Amy, Gutmann, ed., Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teitel, Ruti. 2006. “The Transitional Apology.” In Elazar, Barkan and Alexander, Karn, eds., Taking Wrongs Seriously: Apologies and Reconciliation. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Tomz, Michael. 2007. “Domestic Audience Costs in International Relations: An Experimental Approach.” International Organization 61, no 4: 821–40. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818307070282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verdeja, Ernesto. 2009. Unchopping a Tree: Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Political Violence. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verdeja, Ernesto. 2010. “Official Apologies in the Aftermath of Political Violence.” Metaphilosophy 41, no. 4: 563–81. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2010.01649.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakamiya, Yoshibumi. 1995. Sengo Hoshu No Asia-Kan. Tokyo, Japan: Asahi Sensho.Google Scholar
Wagner, Kim. 2019. “Viewpoint: Should Britain Apologise for Amritsar Massacre?” BBC News, February 19. At https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47070534, accessed April 28, 2021.Google Scholar
Waltz, Kenneth N. 1979. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland.Google Scholar
Wang, Yiwei. 2008. “Public Diplomacy and the Rise of Chinese Soft Power.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616, no. 1: 257–73. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207312757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisiger, Alex, and Keren, Yarhi-Milo. 2015. “Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics.” International Organization 69, no. 2: 473–95. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818314000393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weyeneth, Robert R. 2001. “The Power of Apology and the Process of Historical Reconciliation.” Public Historian 23, no. 3: 9–38. At https://doi.org/10.1525/tph.2001.23.3.9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Ernest J., III. 2008. “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616, no. 1: 110–24. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207312618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittkopf, Eugene R. 1990. Faces of Internationalism:Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Google Scholar
Yarhi-Milo, Keren, Kertzer, Joshua D., and Renshon, Jonathan. 2018. “Tying Hands, Sinking Costs, and Leader Attributes.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62, no. 10: 2150–79. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002718785693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshikawa, Maho. 2020. “‘9-Jo, Jidai Ni Soguwanai.’ Abe Shushou, Jimin Giin Ni Kataru.” Asahi Shimbun, January 16. At https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASN1J6VDTN1JUTFK014.html, accessed October 5, 2020.Google Scholar
Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. 1995. Jūgun Ianfu. Tokyo, Japan: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Kitagawa and Chu Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/PGMX3H
Link
Supplementary material: PDF

Kitagawa and Chu supplementary material

Appendix

Download Kitagawa and Chu supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 769.3 KB