The landscape through surveys

A large number of new survey projects have taken place across the island, giving better insight into the regional topography and settlement distribution in these time periods as well as the longer-term diachronic perspective. Projects in central Crete, including the Galatas Survey ( ID266 , ID1816 ) (Watrous et al. Reference Watrous, Buell, Kokinou, Soupios, Sarris, Beckmann, Rethemiotakis, Turner, Gallimore, Hammond, Iao, Heimroth and Erickson2017), the Pediadha Survey ( ID787 ), and the Phaistos Survey ( ID1820 , ID1917 ) (Bredaki and Longo Reference Bredaki and Longo2018), produced evidence for Roman and Byzantine occupation in the region. At Knossos, the Knossos Urban Landscape Project (KULP) ( ID263 , ID783 ), Knossos Roman Geophysics ( ID5568 , ID6047 , ID6543 , ID6630 ), and Aqueducts of the Greater Iraklio Area Project (AGIA) ( ID8142 , ID18034 ) have all contributed new knowledge to the Roman and Early Byzantine periods at the site.

Several surface surveys and underwater investigations have been carried out on the island of Dia ( ID262 , ID2897 , ID8656 ) (Theodoulou et al. Reference Theodoulou, Foley, Evaggelistis, Koutsouflakis, Sakellariou and Tourtas2015; Koukouraki, Kladou and Kopaka Reference Koukouraki, Kladou and Kopaka2019). As well as the discovery of a Byzantine naval stronghold, several shipwrecks of Roman and Byzantine date have been identified. Of those investigated jointly by the EUA in collaboration with the American Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, two were carrying first- to second-century AD amphorae, one had Late Roman (fifth–seventh century AD) amphorae, and another two shipwrecks held Byzantine (eighth–ninth century AD) amphorae ( ID8656 ). The same institutions have also collaborated on the Western Crete Project, which conducted an underwater geoarchaeological survey in the gulf of Kissamos and the promontories of Rodhopos and Gramvousa in 2013 (Theodoulou, Foley and Tourtas Reference Theodoulou, Foley and Tourtas2016; Reference Theodoulou, Foley and Tourtas2018). Underwater and coastal survey work continues in other regions of Crete, including a collaboration with IMS-FORTH in the Agioi Theodoroi, Istron, and Elounda areas (Theodoulou Reference Theodoulou2015; Reference Theodoulou2019; Reference Theodoulou2020).

In 2014 a surface survey was carried out by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Lasithi, undertaken with the assistance of students from the University of Athens, to identify and map sites in the Livari area of the municipality of Sitea. The findings included the discovery of a Roman settlement at Skiadi (Sofianou Reference Sofianou2020: 8). The survey of the Kavo Sidero peninsula at the northeastern point of Crete in 2018 reported an increase of new sites in the Roman period (Sofianou et al. Reference Sofianou, Papadatos, Kalantzopoulou and Samaras2019), as has been observed by other surveys for other regions of Crete in the past (Sanders Reference Sanders1982: 30; Hayden Reference Hayden2005: 333).

The Oros Oxa survey is yet to have much published about it, but it is the first archaeological investigation in this mountainous area near Elounda. It is a naturally defensive site with a potential Classical or Hellenistic fortification, but the majority of the archaeological remains at the top of the mountain, consisting of a fragmentary fortified circuit wall, water towers, cisterns, and other buildings, appear to date to the end of the Early Byzantine period (Moschovi and Tsigonaki Reference Moschovi and Tsigonaki2019).

Advances have also been made in exploring and documenting the archaeological landscape and monuments with digital techniques, such as photogrammetry and 3D laser scanning, carried out by the GeoSat ReSeArch Lab of FORTH. This has included the modelling of Early Byzantine settlements, the 3D reconstruction of the Roman theatres of Crete, analysis of high-resolution satellite images to understand the urban planning of Gortyn, and the reconstruction of the submerged settlement at Olous (Elounda) (Sarris Reference Sarris2020; Sarris et al. Reference Sarris, Codini, Donati, Simon, Manataki, Zanini and Sythiakaki2020).

Public buildings and infrastructure

Evidence has continued to come to light on how the urban character of centres developed on Crete in the Roman period, with a great deal of investment in urban infrastructure and public architecture. Michalis Karambinis’ (Reference Karambinis2022) recent article provides an overview of cities of Crete (first–third century AD) in the context of increased connectivity and the changes in the economy of Crete in the Roman period. Gortyn has been the most intensively investigated site on Crete for the Roman and Byzantine periods, with various parts of the site being investigated under the auspices of the SAIA. The study of the layout of the city has enabled an understanding of the ancient urban planning of Gortyn (Riccardi Reference Riccardi2020). Eleutherna, which has been excavated by the University of Crete since 1986, has also produced a wealth of evidence in recent years for both public and religious architecture, particularly for the Early Byzantine period, including evidence for an Early Byzantine fortification wall (Tsigonaki Reference Tsigonaki2015; Reference Tsigonaki2020).

During Enzo Lippolis’ investigations of a Hellenistic temple at Gortyn ( ID780 , ID1807 ) in the area to the north of the gymnasium of the praetorium, the team uncovered evidence of Imperial Roman occupation between the temple and the Nymphaeum in the form of a monumental hall, likely constructed at the end of the first century AD, as well as a later fourth-century public building constructed on top of the temple.

Excavations around the theatre of the Pythion by Francesca Ghedini and Jacopo Bonetto of the University of Padua ( ID780 , ID1915 , ID2818 ; Bonetto, Bertelli and Colla Reference Bonetto, Bertelli and Colla2015; Bonetto et al. Reference Bonetto, Bertelli, Brombin, Colla, de Scarpis di Vianino and Metelli2020) have been ongoing since 2001, with the latest campaign in the sanctuary area reported for 2016–2019 (Bonetto et al. Reference Bonetto, Bertelli, Bridi, Brombin, de Scarpis di Vianino and Metelli2021). Investigations have confirmed a date in the first half of the second century for the theatre’s construction, though the sanctuary has its origins in the early Archaic period. A group of 34 bronze coins above a threshold in the skene indicate a destruction date that likely coincides with the AD 365 earthquake. These excavations of the Roman theatre and the subsequent study have been conducted to understand the connection between the theatre and the Apollo sanctuary (Bonetto et al. Reference Bonetto, Bertelli, Colla, Brombin, Bernardi, Gallucci and Metelli2017; Manzetti Reference Manzetti2019).

Though known since it was written about by 16^th-century travel writers, the Great Theatre of Gortyn was systematically excavated between 2011 and 2015 (Kanta et al. Reference Kanta, Kontopodi, Lyrintzis, Nikopoulou and Chatzidakis2020). Excavations and restoration works have also been carried out on the theatres at both Aptera ( ID18158 ; Tzanakaki Reference Tzanakaki2020) (Fig. 4.1) and Chersonisos ( ID8575 ), and a Roman theatre has been discovered during excavations at Elyros ( ID2801 ). Excavations at Chersonisos were able to demonstrate a first century AD date for the theatre there, and that there was reuse of the area for ceramic workshops in the fifth–sixth century (Mandalaki Reference Mandalaki2015). Excavations started in 2013 on a small Roman theatre on the western edge of modern Ierapetra. It is thought that this is likely an odeion, as early travellers reported that there was a large theatre to the east of the ancient city.

4.1. The theatre at Aptera. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania (Niniou-Kindeli and Tzanakaki Reference Niniou-Kindeli, Tzanakaki, Stampolidis, Papadopoulou, Lourentzatou, Fappas and Xanthopoulou2019: 36–37).

Baths are commonly found in archaeological contexts of these dates, suggesting that they were integral to society on Crete. At Gortyn, Giorgio Bejor excavated thermal baths in the area south of the praetorium (ID267, ID1807, ID1915), which appear to have been first constructed in the fourth century with evidence for rebuilding in the fifth and sixth centuries. The baths included a frigidarium, a caldarium, tepidaria, praefurnia, an apodyterium, mosaic floors, the head of a statue of Hygeia, and a lime kiln. This area was reoccupied with houses built in the seventh century. This bath and other findings have enabled a more comprehensive understanding of the water systems at Gortyn (Fig. 4.2).

4.2. Gortyn: water supply, Early Byzantine phase. © SAIA.

Baths have also been discovered in recent years throughout the ancient town of Kissamos, including on the Sampakis-Andreou plot (ID15185). During the Kissamos wastewater collection and transport project (2011–2014) baths were discovered in both the east of the city – on Giannoudovardi and Elafonissiou streets – and in the west of the city, in the area of the church of Agios Nikolaos (ID15796) (Paterakis Reference Paterakis2020). The 2014/2015 excavations at Ancient Lebena (Lentas) unearthed a large complex of elaborate masonry of first- to fourth-century date, including a bath with evidence for repairs into the fifth century (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020: 29, fig. 8). Other baths have been excavated at Ini, discovered alongside aqueduct remains (ID778); a first- to second-century bath at Marathiou (Chania) (Papadopoulou Reference Papadopoulou2020); a second-century bath at Arvi (ID9642); a small Roman bath at Eleutherna that was destroyed in the 365 earthquake (ID271); another Roman bath at Eleutherna incorporated later into a Byzantine building (Tsigonaki 2015; Reference Tsigonaki2020); a fourth-century bath at Potamoi Rethymnou (ID2798); a Late Roman/Early Byzantine bath complex at Moires (ID3650, ID2792); a Middle Byzantine bath that was later converted into a church at Viran Episkopi, previously reported by Giuseppe Gerola (ID1829); another Middle Byzantine elaborate bath complex later converted into a church at Kato Episkopi Sitias (ID1782); and four 14th-century baths in central Heraklion that incorporated spolia from earlier buildings (Aletras Reference Aletras2020). This demonstrates the sophisticated, widespread, and long-term water infrastructure on the island. With such rich evidence available, water management has become a popular topic of study for Roman and Byzantine Crete (Kelly Reference Kelly2006; Reference Kelly2013; Reference Kelly2018; Giorgi Reference Giorgi2008; Reference Giorgi2016; Angelakis, Christodoulakos and Tzanakakis Reference Angelakis, Christodoulakos and Tzanakakis2021; Kelly and O’Neill Reference Kelly and O’Neill2023).

The discovery of Roman period religious structures and finds has been limited in recent years, though for later periods there are many early churches that have been discovered, investigated, and sometimes even restored. These early basilica churches are often on the sites of later churches and many examples of recent church excavations are mentioned below in the ‘Cemeteries’ section, due to their association with burials. For the Roman period, the sanctuary of Apollo Pythios at Gortyn, mentioned above for its theatre, continued to be used into the Roman period. The structure of the temple has been digitally surveyed (Bonetto et al. Reference Bonetto, Bertelli, Brombin, Colla, de Scarpis di Vianino and Metelli2020). Patrizio Fileri (Reference Fileri2020) has revisited the study of the nearby sanctuary of the Egyptian gods in Gortyn through the study of material from past excavations.

Conservation of the early Christian basilica B church at Chersonisos was completed in 2013 (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020). The three-aisled basilica was built in the second half of the fifth century on the foundations of a larger Roman building, which in turn was built over a Hellenistic temple. A seventh-century organized cemetery was also discovered on the site, some remains of which had already been cut out by mechanical diggers (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2015). Similar maintenance and restoration has also been conducted at the Church of Agios Titos Gortynas (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020). Meanwhile, new research at the Basilica of Mitropolis started in 2012, to further our understanding of the Episcopal monumental complex in an eastern suburban district of Gortyn. Studies of the pottery, glass (window and vessels), metals, and wall mosaics suggest a seventh–eighth century use of the complex, while fragments of water pipes show evidence for an earlier aqueduct and water system in the area (Baldini et al. Reference Baldini, Barbariccola, Brokalakis, Casali, Donadei, Marsili, Orlandi and Pellachia2015).

Restoration works or conservation of frescos has also been carried out at Agios Georgios in Vrahasi and Afendi Christou in Kamari Kritsa (both in Lasithi), at Timios Stavros at Vryses Merabello, Panayia Galaktoussa at Apomarma (Heraklion), 318 Theoforon Pateron at Kalo Chorafi (Rethymno), Preveli Monastery (Rethymno), Agios Vasilios at Vouves Platania, Agios Demetrios and Nestora at Kerameia (Chania), and the church of the Archangel Michael in the Diocese of Kissamos (Papadopoulou Reference Papadopoulou2020; Sofianou Reference Sofianou2020; Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020; Tzigounaki Reference Tzigounaki2020b).

Domestic architecture

Alongside new discoveries relating to the public life of the cities, there have also been important finds that help to illuminate aspects of private life in the cities of Roman Crete. Some rural domestic installations were also production sites and are included in the following section on industry and craft. Several excavations at Kissamos have informed us about the severity of the AD 365 earthquake and its destructive impact on domestic structures and on the lives of those caught in the collapsing buildings. These excavations include the discovery of very large and elaborate Roman houses. One of these urban villas was excavated by Stavroula Markoulaki on the Stimadoraki plot in 2007 (ID274, ID13062), with two others on the Papadaki plot in 2008 (ID14602), and more recently on the Metzidaki plot in 2017 (Paterakis Reference Paterakis2023). Many of these discoveries of Roman villas have also produced evidence for a fourth-century destruction date coinciding with the AD 365 earthquake, including at the so-called Pheidias House (ID3597), on the Sampsakis-Andreou plot (ID15861; Paterakis Reference Paterakis2015). Meanwhile, there is evidence of socio-economic diversity from the discovery of smaller and less elaborate houses, such as the third-century house on the Mpatistaki plot at the south end of the ancient town, at a distance from the larger urban villas (ID14811). A reconstruction of one of the urban villas is the subject of one of the most impressive displays in the Archaeological Museum of Chania, newly opened in 2022 (https://news.gtp.gr/2022/04/19/cretes-new-chania-archaeological-museum-opens-to-the-public/). This house was dubbed the ‘House of the Miser’ (Οικίας του Φιλάργυρου) due to the discovery of the skeletal remains of two people within the collapsed structure. It appeared that they had dashed to the basement of the house to retrieve three coin hoards stored there and had been crushed in the collapsing building during the AD 365 earthquake (Fig. 4.3). Despite this major destruction horizon, there have been finds indicating continued occupation in the area into the Byzantine period (ID2784, ID15796). New research at Sougia and Palaiochora using scientific advances in geoarchaeology and microfaunal analysis have enabled a more sophisticated understanding of the impact of the AD 365 tsunami that followed the earthquake (Werner et al. Reference Werner, Baika, Fischer, Hadler, Obrocki, Willershäuser, Tzigounaki, Tsigkou, Reicherter, Papanikolaou, Emde and Vött2018; Vött et al. Reference Vött, Werner, Baika, Fischer, Tzigounaki, Tsigkou, Reicherter, Papanikolaou, Emde and Obrocki2020).

4.3. The museum display of the reconstruction of the ‘House of the Miser’ at Kissamos in the Archaeological Museum of Chania. Photo: Anna Moles © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

At Aptera, the excavation of a typical Roman urban house (Fig. 4.4) with peristyle courtyard similar to those known from Kissamos, Eleutherna, and Knossos uncovered bronze statuettes of Artemis and Apollo attached with lead ingots to a single base (Niniou-Kindeli Reference Niniou-Kindeli2020; Papadopoulou Reference Papadopoulou2020: 129). It was constructed in the first century AD, but underwent significant modifications, such as the blocking of doorways, in the third century, before its final destruction in AD 365.

4.4. View of the Roman house with the Lefka Ori mountain range in the background. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania (Niniou-Kindeli and Tzanakaki Reference Niniou-Kindeli, Tzanakaki, Stampolidis, Papadopoulou, Lourentzatou, Fappas and Xanthopoulou2019: 56–57).

At Gortyn, the Byzantine quarter of the Pythion continued to be investigated during the 2011–2015 and 2016–2021 excavation campaigns, with a view to understanding the transformation of the urban landscape of a large Mediterranean city in Late Antiquity and the Proto Byzantine period (ca fifth–eighth centuries AD) (Zanini Reference Zanini2016; Zanini et al. Reference Zanini, Giorgi, Lapacciana, Luppino and Scoz2021). Roberto Perna’s team from the University of Macerata have also been excavating in this housing area, just to the south end of the Byzantine quarter, in the South Building, analysing the fourth–sixth century transformations of the city (Perna Reference Perna2020). Although much of this area is made up of domestic structures, it is likely this building had a public function until a destructive event ended its use in the seventh century and the whole area was occupied by poor houses (Perna Reference Perna2015).

On the Tryfon A.E. plot at Chersonisos, to the northwest of the ancient city, buildings and a paved road with evidence of use both before and after the AD 365 earthquake were identified. The three rooms west of the street that appeared to have been used for food preparation and consumption were destroyed by the earthquake. The two rooms to the east that were used in the sixth–seventh centuries appear to have had a similar purpose with evidence for storage and preparation of food (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020: 31).

In the excavations in the area of the newly constructed Aposelemes dam, several Roman and Late Roman farmhouse settlements have been discovered at Leniko, Mavres Petres, Agios Nikolaos, and Souvianis Patema between the villages of Avdou, Sfendyli and Potamies (Mavraki-Balanou et al. Reference Mavraki-Balanou, Kastanakis, Tziampasis, Trantafyllidi and Papadaki2015). Their discovery adds to our understanding of the function of rural sites in the Roman period, with evidence for agriculture, wine and oil processing, and craft industry, but further research is still required to fully understand their relationship to the surrounding larger centres.

Production and craft

With discoveries relating to industry, craft, and trade – such as kilns, workshops, presses, loom weights, and amphorae – our understanding of the economy of Crete in these time periods continues to grow.

Among the farmhouse sites around Aposelemes dam mentioned above was an extensive rural settlement that was occupied from the first century BC until the seventh century AD at Leniko. This consisted of a building complex of 20 rooms with spaces for storage and production ( ID3645 ). It produced evidence of a kiln, stone tools, a millstone, loom weights, and the remains of olives and carbonized barley. In the peripheral part of the building complex, burial structures were discovered; rural burials are unusual finds and this discovery aids our understanding of rural burial practices (Mavraki-Balanou et al. Reference Mavraki-Balanou, Kastanakis, Tziampasis, Trantafyllidi and Papadaki2015). Another farming settlement, which may have been a Roman villa, was discovered in 2010 at Fournados, near Kissamos ( ID2796 , ID9110 ). Two wine presses were investigated as well as evidence for olive oil production.

In 2017 a pottery workshop with a kiln was discovered at Chania, including Roman pottery, charcoal, clay, and loom weights (Kataki and Preve Reference Kataki and Preve2023). Roman or Byzantine kilns have also been excavated in recent years at numerous sites, including Chania ( ID2852 ), Gortyn ( ID1915 ), Chersonisos ( ID8575 , ID15868 ), Kissamos ( ID1861 ), and Arvi ( ID9642 ). A section of Roman irrigation pipe and a Byzantine oil or wine vat discovered at Petras in East Crete produced new evidence for the nature of the occupation in these time periods at the site ( ID5522 ).

An Early Byzantine glass workshop was excavated at Ancient Lappa (Argyroupolis, Rethymno), consisting of five rooms around an open space with over 1,500 fragments of glass vessels and glass refuse (Fiolitaki Reference Fiolitaki2020). Glass vessels and evidence for glassworking in the Early Byzantine period at Eleutherna has also been investigated (Coutsinas Reference Coutsinas2020).

At Chersonisos, a large craft workshop dating to the third or fourth century, but severely damaged in 365 AD, was excavated; remains of the structure were found on both sides of a paved road. However, the site appeared to remain in use as a workshop until a final destruction by an earthquake in the seventh century (Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020: 30).

Cemeteries

Major excavations of the Venezelio Hospital at Knossos unveiled a vast number of tombs from the Early Roman period, as well as a smaller number of Hellenistic graves. Their discovery adds to previous knowledge of the North Cemetery and the wider mortuary landscape of Roman Knossos (Catling et al. Reference Catling, Smyth, Musgrave and Jones1976; Catling Reference Catling1979; Carington Smith Reference Carington Smith1982; Grigoropoulos Reference Grigoropoulos2004; Sweetman and Becker Reference Sweetman and Becker2005; Sweetman and Grigoropoulos Reference Sweetman and Grigoropoulos2010; Moles Reference Moles2023a). Though the majority of the material from these excavations is yet to be studied, an overview of the excavations and a selection of the tombs have been presented at the ICCS 12, AEK 4, and published (Rousaki et al. Reference Rousaki, Brokalakis, Triantafyllidi, Chrysanthakopoulou and Pylarinou2016; Reference Rousaki, Brokalakis and Triantafyllidi2019a; Reference Rousaki, Brokalakis, Triantafyllidi, Chrysanthakopoulou and Pilarinou2019b; Rousaki, Triantafyllidi and Brokalakis Reference Rousaki, Triantafyllidi and Brokalakis2020). The publication of the excavation by Maria Rousaki is one of only two articles representing Crete in the vast three-volume publication Τα Νεκροταφεία (Kountouri and Gkadolou Reference Kountouri and Gkadolou2019) on the spatial organization, burial customs, and rituals in cemeteries from rescue excavations across all regions of Greece. The other article documents tombs and cemeteries in Crete excavated during the Ephorate of Nikolaos Platon, 1938–1962 (Salichou Reference Salichou2019).

The discovery of new mausolea at Gortyn provides the earliest evidence on the island for the transition to communal burial practices in more elaborate tomb structures. Prior to the dating of one of these mausolea to the second half of the first century BC, these built tombs of various construction types had appeared to date to around the mid-first century AD (Lippolis et al. Reference Lippolis, Sassu, Giatti and Caliò2015: 540; Sassu and Vannucci Reference Sassu and Vannucciforthcoming). The appearance of built tombs in the mid-first century AD was concurrent with a dramatic increase of rock-cut chamber tombs, also for collective burials (Moles Reference Moles2023a; forthcoming). However, it is possible that this monumental tomb at Gortyn is directly influenced in architectural style by the grand mausolea of the ruling elites in Hellenistic Asia Minor rather than part of the wider trend that developed on Crete in the first century AD.

An extensive Roman (second–third century) cemetery was excavated in 2010 at Loutres, to the west of Ierapetra ( ID2790 ), adding to the dataset on the mortuary landscape of Roman Hierapytna where a wealth of Roman tombs has previously been excavated (Apostolakou Reference Apostolakou1997; Reference Apostolakou2011; Senn Reference Senn2020). These 56 tombs included 12 elaborate built-chamber tombs with vaulted roofs, alongside simpler pit and tile graves. Roman tombs had already been excavated in this area in 2006 ( ID187 ) as well as at nearby sites in Ierapetra, at Almyros (Dialektakis plot) in 2001 ( ID3569 ), 2005 ( ID4540 , ID5541 ), 2006 ( ID5549 ), and 2007 ( ID5517 ), Paramythas (Lyceum area) in 1997 ( ID9811 , ID10203 ), 1998 (ADelt 54 [1998] Chr, 879–80), and 2001 ( ID3569 ), and at Viglia in 1995 ( ID11867 ) and 1999 ( ID186 ).

In the report from the Ephorate of Antiquities of Lasithi at AEK 5 (2016), work at the Hellenistic/Roman cemetery at Agios Nikolaos, on the ‘Stavros’ site for roadworks, was ongoing. Though many of the 39 graves had been disturbed, ceramic vessels and figurines were discovered as grave goods accompanying the burials, and there was one particularly noteworthy burial of a young woman that contained 800 faunal astragalus bones – such bones are often thought to be included in graves due to their use in games of ‘knuckle bones’ (Sofianou Reference Sofianou2020: 4). Another excavation, conducted in 2014 for the widening of the river at Agios Nikolaos, produced nine tile graves containing 13 adults and a child dating from Hellenistic to Early Roman times (Sofianou Reference Sofianou2020: 5).

The Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman cemetery at Ancient Olous (Elounda) has continued to be investigated. Excavations have produced a diversity of tomb types for the Roman period that are not seen on Crete in the preceding time periods. There is a similar range of Roman tomb types known elsewhere on the island (Guyon Reference Guyon2008; Moles Reference Moles and Coutsinasforthcoming), with pit and tile graves as well as the more elaborate built cist graves and vaulted built tombs ( ID5524 , ID5505 , ID5540 ). However, none of the distinctive rock-cut chamber tombs were found at Olous, as the local geology and topography (lacking hillsides of soft rock) does not facilitate the carving of tombs.

Excavations have resumed at the necropolis of Itanos in eastern Crete with a new 2021–2025 campaign led by Athena Tsingarida and Didier Viviers (Université libre de Bruxelles/EBSA) ( ID18152 ). Though this cemetery was used predominantly in earlier periods (seventh–first century BC), the first season of this new campaign unearthed six later graves, with the latest tomb being dated to the first–second century AD.

At Chersonisos, a Late Roman cemetery was uncovered during excavations along the road between the port and Ano Chersonisos ( ID11789 ). A total of 42 graves were excavated, all of which consisted of large rectangular cuttings into the soft bedrock. About half of the graves were lined with built stone walls (Fig. 4.5a–d ), while the others were less elaborate and had no side walls, only stone cover slabs. Within one rectangular opening were large tiles covering the burial. Few grave goods were found, but those that were discovered within the graves included mainly Late Roman jugs and bronze jewellery, indicating a third- to fourth-century date for the graves.

4.5a. Part of the cemetery. Property of E. Panigiri, Chersonisos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion.

4.5b. Built grave. Property of E. Panigiri, Chersonisos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion.

4.5c. Secondary burials (anakomides) in the interior of a grave. Property of E. Panigiri, Chersonisos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion.

4.5d. Roof-tiled grave inside a rectangular opening. Property of E. Panigiri, Chersonisos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion.

Roman and Byzantine burials also continue to come to light at Kissamos in West Crete ( ID1861 , ID2784 , ID15186 , ID15796 ). A Roman vaulted built-chamber tomb was excavated during the construction works for the wastewater pipelines between 2007 and 2013 (Skordou Reference Skordou2016). A further discovery of another such tomb was reported in 2017 (Skordou Reference Skordou2023). This was also thought to have been a barrel-vaulted roof, but this classification is uncertain because the upper courses and roof were destroyed; the grave contained burial compartments. These are similar to the vaulted built tombs (of varied building quality) known from earlier excavations at Kissamos (Pologiorgi Reference Pologiorgi1985), as well as at Knossos (Hood Reference Hood1962; Fraser Reference Fraser1969; Catling Reference Catling1979; Hood and Smyth Reference Hood and Smyth1981, https://digital.bsa.ac.uk/hood.php; Vasilakis 1988; Reference Vasilakis2004), Gortyn (Taramelli Reference Taramelli1902; Platon Reference Platon1957; Serpetsidaki Reference Serpetsidaki1991), Hierapytna (Apostolakou Reference Apostolakou2011), Aptera (Andreadaki-Vlazaki Reference Andreadaki-Vlazaki1988; Niniou-Kindeli Reference Niniou-Kindeli1992; Reference Niniou-Kindeli2004), and Malia (van Effenterre Reference van Effenterre1976). A rock-cut chamber tomb, of the type commonly found across the island, was also discovered during these extensive excavations (Skordou Reference Skordou2020). New discoveries of such chamber tombs also came to light in 2015 near Rethymno during excavations for the construction of the ring road at Episkopi ( ID18108 , ID18109 ).

Although in use since the fourth century BC, the cemetery of Ancient Hyrtakina at Kastelo Baripetros (Municipality of Kandanos-Selinos) shows continued usage into the Early Roman period, with tile and cist graves (Papadopoulou Reference Papadopoulou2020: 129). A similar Hellenistic-Roman cemetery (third century BC–first century AD) was excavated in 2010 at Sfakaki near Rethymno ( ID2803 ; Tsatsaki and Flevari Reference Tsatsaki and Flevari2015). This included 15 tile graves (Fig. 4.6 ), 25 simple cists, seven more elaborate cists, and one pit grave. The tombs appeared to be largely undisturbed and contained a total of 233 ceramic vessels, 28 glass vessels, beads, gold jewellery, sundry items of metal, stone and bone, loom weights, and bronze coins.

Byzantine graves have been excavated largely in and around basilica churches at a number of sites across the island, but have also been found in non-religious contexts, including two cist graves excavated at a farmstead at Kephala Krionerides in 2007 ( ID1856 ). At Agios Petros in Heraklion, where Byzantine fortification were also revealed close to the coast, 31 graves were excavated. They were largely oriented east–west, with the exception of one grave which had the monogram of Saint Catherine of Sinai on its cover stone and was oriented north–south ( ID3646 ). During excavations for the construction of offices for the 23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities and Heraklion Museum, graves were discovered alongside much of the east part of the monastery of Agios Frangiskos ( ID2764 ). Those with cover slabs that made up the central nave of the 14th-century church are thought likely to be the graves of monks and included votive plaques and candle holders.

During the restoration of the Byzantine church of Panagia Galaktousa, at Apomarma in south central Crete, excavation works uncovered six slab-covered graves, likely dating from the 11^th to 13th centuries ( ID16738 ). Similarly, at the ruins of the church of Agioi Saranda at Loutra, in Ano Viannos, six Early Byzantine graves were excavated alongside a cruciform baptistry in the central aisle ( ID2789 ). Tomb 1 had a vaulted roof, while the others appeared to have stone slab or ceramic covers, and Tombs 1 and 3 appeared to be ossuaries (Andreadaki-Vlazaki Reference Andreadaki-Vlazaki2012: 333). Such ossuaries, or osteothekes as they have been termed at Knossos (Catling et al. Reference Catling, Smyth, Musgrave and Jones1976; Sweetman and Becker Reference Sweetman and Becker2005), are known from across the island, and a similar ossuary of Byzantine date was excavated in 2008 at Priniatikos Pyrgos ( ID773 ). Further Byzantine graves were found during 2010 excavations at the site ( ID2003 ).

Excavations conducted in 2015 at Agias Minas, Episkopi, in the municipality of Chersonisos, unveiled a Byzantine (ca 700–1200 AD) cemetery where a church (12th–15th century) was later also constructed (Katsalis and Kokkini Reference Katsalis and Kokkini2020).

At the three-aisled Church of Zoodochos Pigi, at Alikianos southwest of Chania, 77 Middle Byzantine (11th–12th century) tombs were excavated ( ID1850 ) (Fig. 4.7a–e ), including 21 inside the church. These were largely cist graves, but eight were tile graves and 11 were pit graves. The majority were single burials, but 23 were collective burials and one was likely an ossuary. As well as the publication of the excavations, the bioarchaeological study of the human skeletal remains was conducted (Bourbou Reference Bourbou2010b; Reference Bourbou2012; Reference Bourbou2014).

4.6a. Photograph of Tomb 18 with the tile cover (Tsatsaki and Flevari Reference Tsatsaki and Flevari2015: εικ. 1). © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Rethymnon.

4.6b. Drawing of Tomb 18 with the tile cover (Tsatsaki and Flevari Reference Tsatsaki and Flevari2015: Σχέδιο 2). © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Rethymnon.

4.6c. Drawing of Tomb 18, Skeleton 1, without tile covering (Tsatsaki and Flevari Reference Tsatsaki and Flevari2015: Σχέδιο 3). © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Rethymnon.

4.7a. Ground plan of excavation (narthex), Church of Zoodochos Pigi, Alkianos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

4.7b. Ground plan of the excavation (exterior), Church of Zoodochos Pigi, Alkianos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

4.7c. Cist grave (Tomb 27), Church of Zoodochos Pigi, Alkianos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

4.7d. In situ skeleton and interments (Tomb 23), Church of Zoodochos Pigi, Alkianos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

4.7e. Stones among the skull of the dead (Tomb 26a), Church of Zoodochos Pigi, Alkianos. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

Closing remarks

Some of the finds from excavations reported here have already made it into the new museums that opened over the past 10 years on Crete. The Archaeological Museum of Heraklion reopened in 2014 (Rethemiotakis Reference Rethemiotakis2020); the new Archaeological Museum of Chania opened in 2022; the Museum of Ancient Eleutherna opened in 2016 (Tzigounaki Reference Tzigounaki2020a: 117); and most recently work has been finalized on the Archaeological Museum of the Mesara and the Archaeological Museum at Agios Nikolaos for their openings in 2023 (Sofianou Reference Sofianou2020; Sythiakaki Reference Sythiakaki2020).

A complete listing of findings is not possible, especially due to the fact that the more recent discoveries have not yet been reported or published. However, this article has tried to include the major discoveries of the last 15 years for the Roman and Byzantine periods as well as expressing both the quantity and diversity of finds, and the major developments for the archaeology of these time periods on Crete.

A great deal of work is being done and new discoveries are constantly coming to light that both enrich our knowledge and better inform us about the nature of life and society on Crete in the Roman and Byzantine periods, from aspects of identity, culture, and religion to connectivity networks and the economy. However, there are still few studies that really synthesize evidence of past lifeways, society, and identity. Further studies that incorporate modern methodological and theoretical developments are required. Collaborations that aim towards this goal are also needed to fully study and interpret the wealth of legacy material from rescue excavations that often cannot be studied in detail immediately following the excavation.