Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T22:55:49.015Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Physical activity as an intervention in severe mental illness

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 April 2021

Aaron A. Kandola Open the ORCID record for Aaron A. Kandola [Opens in a new window]  and
David P. J. Osborn
Aaron A. Kandola*
Affiliation:
MSc, is a PhD student in the Division of Psychiatry, University College London, UK.
David P. J. Osborn
Affiliation:
PhD, is Professor of Psychiatric Epidemiology in the Division of Psychiatry, University College London, and a consultant psychiatrist in acute community psychiatry with Camden and Islington NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
*
Correspondence Aaron A. Kandola. Email: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Physical activity is a modifiable risk factor for several physical and mental health conditions. It is well established that people with severe mental illness have increased risk of physical health complications, particularly cardiovascular disease. They are also more likely to be physically inactive, contributing to the elevated cardiovascular and metabolic risks, which are further compounded by antipsychotic medication use. Interventions involving physical activity are a relatively low risk and accessible way of reducing physical health problems and weight in people with severe mental illness. They also have wider benefits for mental health symptoms and quality of life. However, many barriers still exist to the widespread implementation of physical activity interventions in the treatment of severe mental illness. A more concerted effort is needed to facilitate their translation into routine practice and to increase adherence to activity interventions.

Keywords

Physical activityexercisefitnessschizophreniabipolar affective disorder
Type
Article
Information
BJPsych Advances , Volume 28 , Issue 2 , March 2022 , pp. 112 - 121
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Royal College of Psychiatrists

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this article you will be able to:

  • • understand why physical activity is clinically important for people with severe mental illness

  • • recognise the possible barriers to and facilitators of engagement in physical activity by people with severe mental illness

  • • consider the next steps for commissioners, researchers and practitioners in this area.

Physical activity refers to any bodily movement that results in some degree of energy expenditure (Caspersen Reference Caspersen, Powell and Christenson1985). The importance of physical activity for treating and preventing many chronic diseases is well established. For example, population-level research shows that higher levels of physical activity are associated with lower incidence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer and common mental health disorders (Wilmot Reference Wilmot, Edwardson and Achana2012; Kyu Reference Kyu, Bachman and Alexander2016; Bennett Reference Bennett, Du, Clarke and Guo2017; Schuch Reference Schuch, Vancampfort and Firth2018, Reference Schuch, Stubbs and Meyer2019). A recent umbrella review of 27 systematic reviews found that physical activity is effective for treating symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress disorders, schizophrenia, and alcohol or substance use disorders (Ashdown-Franks Reference Ashdown-Franks, Firth and Carney2021). These results are primarily based on data from randomised controlled trials (RCTs), with a total of 152 studies included in the review.

The importance of physical activity to public health is exemplified by the widespread adoption of standardised physical activity guidelines (World Health Organization Reference Woodward, Gicas and Warburton2015). In the UK, the Chief Medical Officer's report recommends that adults engage in at least 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic activity or 75 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic activity per week (Department of Health and Social Care 2019). Moderate-intensity activity might include brisk walking or riding a bicycle, whereas vigorous-intensity activity refers to running or sports such as football and athletics.

Among other health benefits, aerobic activity improves cardiorespiratory fitness and helps with weight management. Cardiorespiratory fitness reflects the efficiency of the circulatory and cardiovascular system during activity in adults (Blair Reference Blair, Kampert and Kohl1996). Low cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with a greater risk of several chronic conditions, cardiovascular disease and common mental disorders (Lee Reference Lee, Sui and Artero2011; Kandola Reference Kandola, Ashdown-Franks and Stubbs2019). Guidelines also recommend engaging in strength training at least twice per week. Strength training refers to exercises that strengthen muscles, such as using resistance bands or lifting weights. These exercises improve muscular fitness, which is another important marker of chronic health conditions, common mental disorders and cognitive performance (Celis-Morales Reference Celis-Morales, Petermann and Hui2017; Wu 2017; Firth Reference Firth, Stubbs and Vancampfort2018c; Kandola Reference Kandola, Osborn and Stubbs2020).

Physical inactivity refers to not meeting national physical activity guidelines (Kohl Reference Kohl, Craig and Lambert2012). Physical inactivity is widely recognised as different from sedentary behaviour, even though they both sit on the same activity spectrum. Sedentary behaviour refers to any activity in a sitting, lying or reclining position with very low energy expenditure (Tremblay Reference Tremblay, Aubert and Barnes2017). Driving or watching television while seated are examples of sedentary behaviours. Physical activity guidelines in the UK recently included recommendations for reducing sedentary behaviour, where possible (Department of Health and Social Care 2019).

Despite sustained global health campaigns, physical activity levels in the general population are still lower than recommended. Worldwide, over 27% of adults (around 1.4 billion individuals) and 81% of young people aged 11 to 17 were estimated to not be achieving national physical activity guidelines in 2016, with little improvement since 2001 (Guthold Reference Guthold, Stevens and Riley2018, Reference Guthold, Stevens and Riley2020). Global cardiorespiratory fitness appears to have decreased in adults and children over the past few decades (Lamoureux Reference Lamoureux, Fitzgerald and Norton2019; Tomkinson Reference Tomkinson, Lang and Tremblay2019). Estimates suggest that around 5 million deaths worldwide are directly attributable to physical inactivity each year (Lee Reference Lee, Shiroma and Lobelo2012).

Reducing physical inactivity has the potential to improve population physical and mental health. Approaches for increasing physical activity are generally safe, have few to no side-effects, are widely accessible and are cost-effective in the population (Roux Reference Roux, Pratt and Tengs2008). The following sections will explore how and why people with severe mental illness (SMI) represent a high-risk group that would benefit from interventions to increase activity. We use SMI in this article to indicate a diagnosis of any bipolar disorder, non-affective psychoses or major depressive disorder. However, much of the current literature focuses on people with a schizophrenia diagnosis specifically.

Physical activity and SMI

People with SMI are generally less physically active than the general population. A recent meta-analysis of 69 studies (n = 35 684) found that people with SMI engaged in an average of 38.4 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day, around 13 min fewer than comparison groups without SMI (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Firth and Schuch2017b). These findings are mostly from self-report questionnaires, and data from the UK Biobank suggest that these measures likely overestimate physical activity in SMI populations (Firth Reference Firth, Stubbs and Vancampfort2018d). Data from activity monitors in 1078 people with schizophrenia from the UK Biobank suggest that their total physical activity is 80% lower than that of the general population. There are also differences between diagnoses. For example, people diagnosed with bipolar disorder had higher sedentary behaviour but higher moderate to vigorous physical activity per day than those reporting a diagnosis of schizophrenia (Reference Vancampfort, Rosenbaum and SchuchVancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Firth and Schuch2017b).

The lower activity levels in SMI populations have implications for physical health (Firth Reference Firth, Siddiqi and Koyanagi2019). People with SMI have lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (g = −1.01) than healthy controls, with no difference between those with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Rosenbaum and Schuch2017a). Physical inactivity and high levels of sedentary behaviour tend to cluster with other behavioural risk factors for physical ill health in SMI populations, such as smoking (Jackson Reference Jackson, Diaz and Lopez2015) and poor diet (Firth Reference Firth, Stubbs and Teasdale2018a). These unhealthy lifestyle factors likely contribute to the 1.4–2 times increased risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disease in people with SMI compared with the general population (Firth Reference Firth, Siddiqi and Koyanagi2019). Data from primary care records indicate that the risk of premature mortality is elevated in people with SMI (HR = 1.79 for bipolar disorder and HR = 2.08 for schizophrenia) and this mortality gap from the general population appears to be widening (Hayes Reference Hayes, Marston and Walters2017). The development of comorbid physical health conditions in people with SMI creates an enormous healthcare challenge for the UK's National Health Service (NHS) (Naylor Reference Naylor, Das and Ross2016). As set out in its long-term plan, the NHS is committed to improving physical health outcomes for people with SMI and reducing this mortality gap (NHS England 2019).

Physical inactivity is a major component of an unhealthy lifestyle that is likely to contribute to the physical health risks associated with SMI. It may also affect symptoms of mental illness. Physical activity conveys a range of mental health benefits for people with SMI, including reducing depression and anxiety symptoms and improving cognitive functioning, sleep, quality of life and social adjustment (Rosenbaum Reference Rosenbaum, Tiedemann and Sherrington2014; Firth Reference Firth, Cotter and Elliott2015, Reference Firth, Stubbs and Rosenbaum2017; Ashdown-Franks Reference Ashdown-Franks, Firth and Carney2020). Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary behaviour in SMI populations may have transdiagnostic benefits that improve psychiatric symptoms and well-being while reducing the risk of physical health complications over time.

The effectiveness of physical activity interventions in SMI populations

The British Association for Psychopharmacology (BAP) recommends the use of lifestyle interventions for managing weight and cardiovascular disease risk in treating SMI (Cooper Reference Cooper, Reynolds and Barnes2016). A recent European Psychiatric Association statement highlighted that interventions involving physical activity also have wider physical and mental health benefits in SMI populations, and there is an increasing focus on increasing their acceptability and effectiveness (Stubbs Reference Stubbs, Vancampfort and Hallgren2018). These interventions use various types of physical activity, such as stationary cycling, walking, resistance training, jogging and group-based aerobics sessions. Protocols are sometimes based on national activity guidelines or specific recommendations from authoritative bodies, such as the American College of Sports Medicine. But the content of these interventions may be perceived as unrealistically high for people with low activity. Some interventions consist of multiple short bouts of activity, such as two or three bouts of 10 min per day (Linke Reference Linke, Gallo and Norman2011). These approaches are less intense and allow greater flexibility to incorporate activity throughout the day.

Mental health

There is evidence that these physical activity interventions can improve mental health outcomes. A meta-analysis of 20 studies suggested that aerobic exercise interventions involving at least 90 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week can reduce positive (s.m.d. = −0.54, 95% CI −0.95 to −0.13) and negative (s.m.d. = −0.44, 95% CI −0.78 to −0.09) symptoms in people with schizophrenia (Firth Reference Firth, Cotter and Elliott2015). The exercise intensities for these studies are typically based on individual factors, such as baseline fitness, activity levels, heart rate and other health factors. For example, exercises may be set at 40–60% of a participant's maximum capacity. A systematic review of six studies found that strength training also reduced positive and negative symptoms in people with schizophrenia (Keller-Varady Reference Keller-Varady, Varady and Röh2018). The strength training interventions in these trials typically focused on resistance exercises for large muscle groups, such as the legs, chest, shoulders and back. Some interventions also included an aerobic component, such as running or walking. Interventions were delivered by a study investigator or trained exercise professional. Another meta-analysis of 10 studies involving with 20–60 min of aerobic exercise 2–4 times per week were associated with improved global cognitive function (g = 0.33, 95% CI = 0.13–0.53) in people with schizophrenia (Firth Reference Firth, Stubbs and Rosenbaum2017).

Far fewer studies exist that investigate the relationship between physical activity interventions and psychiatric symptoms in people with bipolar disorder (Ashdown-Franks Reference Ashdown-Franks, Firth and Carney2020). One systematic review with 31 studies of varying design found that higher exercise levels were associated with fewer depressive symptoms in people with bipolar disorder (Melo Reference Melo, Daher and Albuquerque2016). Associations with mania symptoms were inconsistent. However, this review included observational studies and some interventional studies, but no RCTs. Evidence for the utility of exercise in bipolar disorder is typically based on extrapolated evidence from trials in people with unipolar depression (Thomson Reference Thomson, Turner and Lauder2015). For example, several meta-analyses of RCTs using physical activity interventions have consistently found moderate to large effect sizes for reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders (Bridle Reference Bridle, Spanjers and Patel2012; Herring Reference Herring, Puetz and O'Connor2012; Cooney Reference Cooney, Dwan and Greig2013; Josefsson Reference Josefsson, Lindwall and Archer2014; Kvam Reference Kvam, Kleppe and Nordhus2016; Schuch Reference Schuch, Vancampfort and Richards2016; Stubbs Reference Stubbs, Vancampfort and Rosenbaum2017). The role of exercise in bipolar disorder could be more complex than in unipolar depression. For example, preliminary evidence suggests that exercise can help people with bipolar disorder manage their excess energy, but may exacerbate manic and hypomanic symptoms (Thomson Reference Thomson, Turner and Lauder2015).

Physical health and quality of life

There is evidence that exercise can also improve physical health outcomes in people with SMI. A meta-analysis of four RCTs suggests that around 12 weeks of aerobic exercise 2–3 times per week can improve cardiorespiratory fitness in people with schizophrenia (g = 0.43, 95% CI = 0.05 to 0.82) (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort2015). A systematic review of ten studies found that walking-based interventions can produce small reductions in body fat or body mass index (BMI) in people with schizophrenia (Reference Soundy, Stubbs and ProbstSoundy Reference Soundy, Muhamed and Stubbs2014b). Another systematic review of seven RCTs found that combined aerobic and resistance training for around 95 min twice per week was effective for improving strength and overall mental health in people with schizophrenia (Martin Reference Martin, Beard and Clissold2017). Although less research is available for bipolar disorder, regular aerobic exercise in people with mild to severe depression improves various aspects of physical health, including cardiorespiratory fitness, body fat percentage and blood glucose levels (de Souza Moura Reference de Souza Moura, Lamego and Paes2015; Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Rosenbaum and Schuch2017a).

Physical activity interventions also provide broader of range benefits to people with SMI. For example, two RCTs found that at least 120 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week improved quality of life and reduced disability (Firth Reference Firth, Cotter and Elliott2015). A meta-analysis of eight RCTs using various types of exercise found large improvements in sleep (g = 0.73, 95% CI 0.18–1.28) in people with SMI (Lederman Reference Lederman, Ward and Firth2019).

Aerobic exercise can also stimulate a multitude of changes in the brain that are relevant to SMI (Kandola Reference Kandola, Hendrikse and Lucassen2016). For example, aerobic exercise can increase the volume (Reference Firth, Stubbs and TeasdaleFirth Reference Firth, Stubbs and Vancampfort2018b) and functioning of the hippocampus (Erickson Reference Erickson, Prakash and Voss2009), including in people with schizophrenia (Pajonk Reference Pajonk, Wobrock and Gruber2010; Woodward Reference Woodward, Gicas and Warburton2018). These improvements in hippocampal integrity may contribute to reductions in overall symptoms and cognitive deficits in people with schizophrenia (Kandola Reference Kandola, Hendrikse and Lucassen2016).

Evidence from 160 RCTs also suggests that both aerobic and strength training over a median of 12 weeks can reduce several pro-inflammatory markers in predominantly healthy participants (Lin Reference Lin, Zhang and Guo2015). There is also some early evidence of this in psychiatric populations (Euteneuer Reference Euteneuer, Dannehl and Del Rey2017; Lavebratt Reference Lavebratt, Herring and Liu2017). Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels are elevated in many people with SMI and could contribute to both psychiatric symptoms and physical health risks (Khandaker Reference Khandaker, Cousins and Deakin2015; Rosenblat Reference Rosenblat and McIntyre2016).

Safety, dose–response and cost-effectiveness

Interventions to increase activity are a relatively low-risk approach for improving the mental and physical health of people with SMI. Exercise interventions do not substantially increase the risk of adverse events in the treatment of mental illness, although more consistent data on safety would be beneficial (Czosnek Reference Czosnek, Lederman and Cormie2019). Despite promising initial findings, there remains a lack of large-scale RCTs of activity interventions in SMI populations (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Firth and Correll2019).

There remain unanswered questions regarding dose–response (frequency, intensity and duration of intervention) and safety. For example, people with SMI may experience balance or other musculoskeletal problems that increase the risk of falling during exercise (Hamera Reference Hamera, Goetz and Brown2010). Tailored exercise programmes that incorporate balance and coordination exercises could be a useful method of addressing these concerns (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Stubbs and Sienaert2016a). The cardiovascular and metabolic benefits of exercise likely outweigh the risk of falls, which only represent a concern for a minority of people with SMI (Firth Reference Firth, Rosenbaum and Stubbs2016).

Achieving 150 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity is a viable target in many populations, but different targets may be necessary for people with SMI (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Stubbs and Ward2015a). For example, people with SMI may benefit from engaging in frequent bouts of light activity throughout the day to break up extended periods of sitting. Large RCTs are necessary to compare the relative benefits of different intensities, durations and frequencies of activity in people with SMI.

Although community-based exercise interventions are increasingly demonstrated as being cost-effective in non-SMI populations (Kelly Reference Kelly, Harrison and Richardson2021), similar data in SMI groups are lacking (Czosnek Reference Czosnek, Lederman and Cormie2019).

Barriers and facilitators for implementation

Although there is a growing evidence base for their transdiagnostic benefits, research on the clinical implementation of physical activity interventions for people with SMI is lacking (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Stubbs and Ward2015a; Lederman Reference Lederman, Suetani and Stanton2017). However, available research has indicated a number of barriers and facilitators in implementation (Box 1).

BOX 1 Engagement in physical activity interventions by people with severe mental illness: barriers and facilitators

Barriers

  • • Medication side-effects

  • • Co-existing physical health conditions

  • • Lack of motivation

  • • Illness-related symptoms (e.g. negative symptoms of psychosis, social anxiety, low self-esteem)

  • • Lack of access to a suitable environment

Facilitators

  • • Use of a qualified professional to deliver the activity

  • • Social support of peers and healthcare professionals

  • • Providing information about the activity

  • • Personalised goal setting and activity plans

Barriers

Modifying physical activity is a challenge in any population and requires varying approaches for different people (Heath Reference Heath, Parra and Sarmiento2012). There are several physical, psychosocial and environmental barriers to increasing physical activity and decreasing sedentary behaviour in people with SMI (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a; Firth Reference Firth, Rosenbaum and Stubbs2016b). These factors likely underlie the substantial drop-out rates from activity interventions in SMI populations, which are estimated to be around 27% in people with schizophrenia (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Rosenbaum and Schuch2015b). Nevertheless, this is within the range of drop-out rates for activity interventions found in other populations (18–35%), such as obese individuals (Linke Reference Linke, Gallo and Norman2011).

Medication side-effects and co-existing physical health conditions are examples of possible physical barriers to increasing activity in people with SMI. Physical activity is typically lower in adolescents and adults with SMI who are taking second-generation antipsychotic medications (Cuerda Reference Cuerda, Velasco and Merchán-Naranjo2014; Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Probst and Daenen2016b; Perez-Cruzado Reference Perez-Cruzado, Cuesta-Vargas and Vera-Garcia2018). A qualitative study of 151 physical therapists working in psychiatric services suggests that medication side-effects are among the most commonly cited barriers to increasing activity in people with schizophrenia (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a). However, it remains unclear whether the medication or other factors explain the lower activity (Cuerda Reference Cuerda, Velasco and Merchán-Naranjo2014).

Nurses and other healthcare staff also commonly report a lack of motivation and negative symptoms as common barriers to implementing physical activity interventions in people with SMI (Harding Reference Harding2013; Robson Reference Robson, Haddad and Gray2013; Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a). Related symptoms may also affect motivation. For example, social anxiety may reduce the likelihood of exercising outside or in a gym. Other motivational factors may relate to SMI treatment. For example, medication side-effects can affect motivation to exercise through sedation and neuromuscular side-effects (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a; Firth Reference Firth, Rosenbaum and Stubbs2016). Understanding factors that increase motivation for activity in people with SMI is an essential but understudied area. A systematic review of 79 studies in SMI populations was able to identify only one that included motivation for physical activity as its main outcome (Farholm Reference Farholm and Sørensen2016). The review suggests that interventional studies commonly use motivational interviewing and goal-setting techniques without directly evaluating their effectiveness. Related factors include a reduced sense of self-esteem and confidence in people with SMI that limit motivation to increase activity (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a).

Facilitators

A number of factors facilitate the successful implementation of activity interventions in SMI populations. A meta-analysis of 19 activity interventions in people with schizophrenia found that having a qualified professional delivering the intervention moderated drop-out (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, Rosenbaum and Schuch2015b). For example, including a physical therapist or exercise physiologist to lead the activity may increase adherence. A qualified exercise professional may increase the quality and enjoyment of exercise sessions. Social support is another facilitator of activity in SMI populations (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a ). Peers and healthcare professionals can play an active role in fostering a supportive and encouraging environment to encourage adherence. These factors may help with psychosocial barriers of self-esteem and motivation.

The provision of information about the activity is another possible facilitator of activity (Soundy Reference Soundy, Stubbs and Probst2014a). People with SMI may lack knowledge about the benefits of the activity or how to perform activities that most interest them (Matthews Reference Matthews, Cowman and Brannigan2018). Providing this information contributes to a supportive environment and promotes self-efficacy, which can lead to increased activity. Goal setting and creating personalised activity plans are also likely to provide complementary benefits for promoting sustainable improvements in activity (McEwan Reference McEwan, Harden and Zumbo2016). For example, the PRIMROSE trial for reducing cardiovascular risk in SMI groups obtained good adherence to the intervention through the use of behavioural change techniques that included goal setting, action plans, progress tracking, providing positive feedback and dealing with setbacks (Osborn Reference Osborn, Burton and Hunter2018).

Future directions

Adherence

Implementing physical activity interventions in the treatment of SMI will be an important step in achieving the NHS's long-term goal of improving physical health outcomes for SMI groups (National Health Service 2019). Studies of activity in SMI populations are increasingly moving beyond demonstrating efficacy to establishing effectiveness in real-world settings, including the use of behavioural change techniques (Farholm Reference Farholm and Sørensen2016). Increasing adherence to interventions will be key to improving the quality of physical healthcare in SMI populations in accordance with NICE guidelines (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence 2014). Further research must directly examine successful methods for designing and implementing activity interventions in SMI populations, particularly in people with bipolar disorder, where there is a paucity of work. The field may benefit from developing novel methods for motivating people with SMI to increase their activity. For example, ‘exergaming’ interventions target motivation through enjoyable video games that promote exercise and bodily movements. An exergaming study involving 16 out-patients with schizophrenia found good acceptability, feasibility and an attrition rate of around 19% (Campos Reference Campos, Mesquita and Marquesa2015). However, no significant improvements in fitness, mobility or symptoms resulted from the intervention.

A recent trial in people with SMI also integrated self-management concepts and social cognitive theory to promote adherence to a cardiovascular risk reduction intervention delivered through community mental health programmes (Daumit Reference Daumit, Dalcin and Dickerson2020). For example, they used motivational interviewing and solution-focused therapy sessions tailored to minimise the impact of memory and executive functioning deficits. The intervention also included a points system to encourage participants to attend sessions and achieve goals. Further interventions in community settings that utilise novel techniques to promote adherence would be beneficial.

It will also be necessary to take a practical and realistic approach to developing better activity interventions in SMI populations. Maintaining good activity levels across the life course is necessary to improve long-term physical health outcomes. But activity interventions typically last between 12 and 24 weeks in SMI populations and follow-up periods rarely exceed 36 weeks (Firth Reference Firth, Rosenbaum and Stubbs2017). It remains unclear whether increased activity levels during the study period reflect sustainable changes in activity habits.

Dose

Despite a growing number of studies in the area, there is still no consensus regarding the type, frequency, duration and intensity of activity most suitable for treating people with SMI (Cooper Reference Cooper, Reynolds and Barnes2016; Lederman Reference Lederman, Suetani and Stanton2017). A recent systematic review of 32 studies found inconsistent and low-quality evidence that interventions can increase activity or reduce sedentary behaviour in people with SMI (Ashdown-Franks Reference Ashdown-Franks, Williams and Vancampfort2018). Large-scale RCTs are necessary to establish the type, frequency, duration and intensity of activity that will be most beneficial for people with SMI.

Safety, cost and cost-effectiveness

More research should focus on establishing safety and outlining the cost of activity interventions in mental health settings (Czosnek Reference Czosnek, Lederman and Cormie2019). Although developing personalised activity plans and hiring exercise physiologists will likely promote adherence, they will also increase the cost. Managing cost-effectiveness will be essential, as activity interventions are most suitable as part of complex, multifactorial treatments approaches to mental illness (Firth Reference Firth, Siddiqi and Koyanagi2019). Developing personalised approaches also requires accurate assessments of baseline activity and fitness. The use of devices to monitor activity levels could be prohibitively expensive in many clinical settings, where self-report measures would be more feasible. However, to our knowledge just one physical activity questionnaire has been specifically designed and validated for recording activity in people with mental illness (Rosenbaum Reference Rosenbaum, Morell and Abdel-Baki2020a).

A recent meta-review of 33 reviews found no available data on the cost of implementing activity interventions in mental health settings (Czosnek Reference Czosnek, Lederman and Cormie2019). The long-term benefits of activity may outweigh the immediate costs of interventions. For example, physical activity may reduce cardiovascular risk, potentially offsetting future treatment costs for cardiovascular disease. More careful consideration of cost will be necessary to translate research into practice (Czosnek Reference Czosnek, Lederman and Cormie2019).

Introducing lifestyle changes during routine care

The recent Lancet Psychiatry Commission on physical health in mental illness called for more routine implementation of lifestyle approaches in mental healthcare, including the involvement of physical therapists and exercise specialists (Firth Reference Firth, Siddiqi and Koyanagi2019). This integrative approach to routine care reflects a need to manage the physical health of people with SMI more effectively, both with and without physical comorbidities. A greater integration of lifestyle approaches will contribute to the prevention or reduction of physical health problems over time and help to close the mortality gap between those with SMI and the general population. It will also help to mitigate some long-term medication side-effects, such as weight gain. Lifestyle approaches aiming to counteract weight gain in people with SMI are most effective when combining exercise with dietary changes, rather than exercise alone (Gurusamy Reference Gurusamy, Gandhi and Damodharan2018). Implementing these lifestyle approaches as part of routine care in SMI groups may require changing staff perspectives and culture, such as by offering brief lifestyle interventions to clinical and non-clinical staff (Reference Rosenbaum, Morell and Abdel-BakiRosenbaum Reference Rosenbaum, Ward and Baldeo2020b). Practitioners’ lack of knowledge of physical activity interventions is a common barrier to their prescription in mental health services (Way Reference Way, Kannis-Dymand and Lastella2018).

Systemic changes to reduce health inequalities

There has also been an increase in local and national initiatives to highlight systemic changes that facilitate the integration of physical and mental healthcare. For example, the World Health Organization has published guidance on changes at the individual, health-system and societal level for reducing health inequalities in SMI groups (World Health Organization 2017). Similar reports from Public Health England highlight local actions necessary to reduce these inequalities, including addressing the social determinants of poor health and early detection and intervention (Public Health England 2018). Co-producing these initiatives with SMI groups will be an important strategy for their successful implementation (Deenik Reference Deenik, Czosnek and Teasdale2020).

Long-term evaluation

It remains unclear to what extent these new ideas and best practice guidelines will produce meaningful improvements for SMI groups. However, the growing recognition of these issues may promote a wider-scale adoption and implementation of strategies that do result in sustainable improvements. Current interventions are based on theory and behavioural science and the BAP guidance highlights the limited evidence on long-term maintenance of lifestyle interventions (Cooper Reference Cooper, Reynolds and Barnes2016). Demonstrating sustainable reductions in physical health risks may require further investment in long-term approaches with several years between follow-up assessments. The long-term maintenance of these interventions may also require environmental changes that facilitate greater incidental physical activity, such as accessible and comfortable walking and cycling areas (Vancampfort Reference Vancampfort, De Hert and De Herdt2013).

Conclusions

The challenges of implementing successful activity interventions in SMI populations does not detract from their importance. People with SMI are at an elevated risk of physical health complications over time, including obesity, cardiovascular and metabolic disease, and premature mortality. Low physical activity, low fitness and high levels of sedentary behaviour are modifiable risk factors for many of these health complications. These risk factors are highly prevalent in SMI populations and likely compounded by other risk factors, including smoking and poor diet.

Activity interventions for people with SMI are an essential adjunctive to treatment. Promoting activity will reduce the risk of these physical health complications. It will also have a positive impact on mental health symptoms and have wider benefits, including improving sleep quality and quality of life. However, large-scale RCTs will be necessary to provide further information on dose–response and other fundamental aspects of treatment. There is also a paucity of research focusing on translation of trial evidence into practice. Details on practical considerations such as cost and safety are still lacking. One of the greatest challenges relates to improving adherence to activity in people with SMI. A more direct approach is necessary to identify methods to address poor adherence, such as developing novel ways of increasing motivation and enjoyment of activity.

Author contributions

Both authors made substantial contributions to the conception, drafting, revising and final approval of the manuscript in accordance with ICMJE guidelines. The authors agree to be accountable for the integrity or accuracy of the work.

Funding

A.A.K. is funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ES/P000592/1). D.P.J.O. is funded by the National Institute for Health Research and University College London Hospitals (UCLH NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre and is also part supported by the NIHR Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care North Thames at Bart's Health NHS Trust. No funder had any involvement in the conception, implementation or composition of this work.

Declaration of interest

None.

ICMJE forms are in the supplementary material, available online at https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2021.33.

MCQs

Select the single best option for each question stem

  1. 1 Why might the inclusion of physical activity in SMI treatment be beneficial for patients?

    1. a physical activity can reduce feelings of stress and improve sleep

    2. b physical activity can improve psychiatric symptoms

    3. c physical activity reduces the long-term risk of physical health complications

    4. d options a and b

    5. e all of the above.

  2. 2 A key factor in reducing drop-out from physical activity interventions in people with SMI is:

    1. a a lack of peer support

    2. b physical limitations and discomfort

    3. c cost of travel to sessions

    4. d having a qualified exercise professional leading sessions

    5. e all of the above

  3. 3 A commonly cited barrier to engagement in physical activity by people with SMI is:

    1. a medication side-effects

    2. b positive symptoms

    3. c unrealistic goal setting

    4. d the difficulty of the activity

    5. e all of the above

  4. 4 To facilitate the widespread implementation of physical activity interventions in the treatment of SMI, a priority for future work is to:

    1. a establish longer-term effects of activity on physical health

    2. b establish the safety and cost-effectiveness of activity interventions in SMI groups

    3. c establish the impact of activity on brain functioning

    4. d establish whether aerobic or resistance training is more effective for improving outcomes

    5. e all of the above

  5. 5 According to the UK's Chief Medical Officer's report, the current recommendations for physical activity for adults aged 19–64 is:

    1. a at least 300 min of moderate activity or 150 min of vigorous activity per week

    2. b at least 75 min of moderate to vigorous activity per week

    3. c up to 150 min of moderate to vigorous activity twice a week

    4. d at least 150 min of moderate activity or 75 min of vigorous activity per week

    5. e at least 75 min of moderate activity three times per week.

MCQ answers

1 e 2 d 3 a 4 b 5 d

Footnotes

This article is a companion to the CPD Online module ‘Physical activity interventions in severe mental illness’ by Amit Mistry & Lynne Drummond (https://elearning.rcpsych.ac.uk/learningmodules/physicalactivityintervention.aspx).

References

Ashdown-Franks, G, Williams, J, Vancampfort, D, et al. (2018) Is it possible for people with severe mental illness to sit less and move more? A systematic review of interventions to increase physical activity or reduce sedentary behaviour. Schizophrenia Research, 202: 3–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashdown-Franks, G, Firth, J, Carney, R, et al. (2020) Exercise as medicine for mental and substance use disorders: a meta-review of the benefits for neuropsychiatric and cognitive outcomes. Sports Medicine, 50: 151–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, DA, Du, H, Clarke, R, Guo, Y, et al. (2017) Association of physical activity with risk of major cardiovascular diseases in Chinese men and women. JAMA Cardiology, 2: 1349–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, SN, Kampert, JB, Kohl, HW 3rd, et al. (1996) Influences of cardiorespiratory fitness and other precursors on cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men and women. JAMA, 276: 205–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bridle, C, Spanjers, K, Patel, S, et al. (2012) Effect of exercise on depression severity in older people: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. British Journal of Psychiatry, 201: 180–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campos, C, Mesquita, F, Marquesa, A, et al. (2015) Feasibility and acceptability of an exergame intervention for schizophrenia. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19: 50–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspersen, CJ, Powell, KE, Christenson, GM (1985) Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100: 126–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Celis-Morales, CA, Petermann, F, Hui, L, et al. (2017) Associations between diabetes and both cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality are modified by grip strength: evidence from UK Biobank, a prospective population-based cohort study. Diabetes Care, 40: 1710–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooney, GM, Dwan, K, Greig, CA, et al. (2013) Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9: CD004366.Google Scholar
Cooper, SJ, Reynolds, GP, Barnes, T, et al. (2016) BAP guidelines on the management of weight gain, metabolic disturbances and cardiovascular risk associated with psychosis and antipsychotic drug treatment. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30: 717–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuerda, C, Velasco, C, Merchán-Naranjo, J, et al. (2014) The effects of second-generation antipsychotics on food intake, resting energy expenditure and physical activity. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68: 146–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Czosnek, L, Lederman, O, Cormie, P, et al. (2019) Health benefits, safety and cost of physical activity interventions for mental health conditions: a meta-review to inform translation efforts. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 16: 140–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daumit, GL, Dalcin, AT, Dickerson, FB, et al. (2020) Effect of a comprehensive cardiovascular risk reduction intervention in persons with serious mental illness: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open, 3(6): e207247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deenik, J, Czosnek, L, Teasdale, SB, et al. (2020) From impact factors to real impact: translating evidence on lifestyle interventions into routine mental health care. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 10: 1070–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Department of Health and Social Care (2019) UK Chief Medical Officers’ Physical Activity Guidelines. GOV.UK.Google Scholar
de Souza Moura, A, Lamego, MK, Paes, F, et al. (2015) Comparison among aerobic exercise and other types of interventions to treat depression: a systematic review. CNS & Neurological Disorders – Drug Targets, 14: 1171–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, KI, Prakash, RS, Voss, MW, et al. (2009) Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans. Hippocampus, 19: 1030–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Euteneuer, F, Dannehl, K, Del Rey, A, et al. (2017) Immunological effects of behavioral activation with exercise in major depression: an exploratory randomized controlled trial. Translational Psychiatry, 7(5): e1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farholm, A, Sørensen, M (2016) Motivation for physical activity and exercise in severe mental illness: a systematic review of intervention studies. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 25: 194–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firth, J, Cotter, J, Elliott, R, et al. (2015) A systematic review and meta-analysis of exercise interventions in schizophrenia patients. Psychological Medicine, 45: 1343–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firth, J, Rosenbaum, S, Stubbs, B, et al. (2016) Motivating factors and barriers towards exercise in severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 46: 2869–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firth, J, Stubbs, B, Rosenbaum, S, et al. (2017) Aerobic exercise improves cognitive functioning in people with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43: 546–56.Google ScholarPubMed
Firth, J, Stubbs, B, Teasdale, SB, et al. (2018a) Diet as a hot topic in psychiatry: a population-scale study of nutritional intake and inflammatory potential in severe mental illness. World Psychiatry, 17: 365–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firth, J, Stubbs, B, Vancampfort, D, et al. (2018b) Effect of aerobic exercise on hippocampal volume in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. NeuroImage, 166: 230–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firth, J, Stubbs, B, Vancampfort, D, et al. (2018c) Grip strength is associated with cognitive performance in schizophrenia and the general population: a UK biobank study of 476559 participants. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44: 728–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firth, J, Stubbs, B, Vancampfort, D, et al. (2018d) The validity and value of self-reported physical activity and accelerometry in people with schizophrenia: a population-scale study of the UK biobank. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44: 1293–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firth, J, Siddiqi, N, Koyanagi, A, et al. (2019) The Lancet Psychiatry Commission: a blueprint for protecting physical health in people with mental illness. Lancet Psychiatry, 6: 675–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurusamy, J, Gandhi, S, Damodharan, D, et al. (2018) Exercise, diet and educational interventions for metabolic syndrome in persons with schizophrenia: a systematic review. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 36: 73–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guthold, R, Stevens, GA, Riley, LM, et al. (2018) Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1.9 million participants. Lancet Global Health, 6: e1077–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guthold, R, Stevens, GA, Riley, LM, et al. (2020) Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1.6 million participants. Lancet Child and Adolescent Health, 4: 23–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamera, E, Goetz, J, Brown, C, et al. (2010) Safety considerations when promoting exercise in individuals with serious mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 178: 220–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, SL (2013) Direct care staff perspectives related to physical activity in mental health group homes. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 51(12): 38–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, JF, Marston, L, Walters, K, et al. (2017) Mortality gap for people with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: UK-based cohort study 2000-2014. British Journal of Psychiatry, 211: 175–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, GW, Parra, DC, Sarmiento, OL, et al. (2012) Evidence-based intervention in physical activity: lessons from around the world. Lancet, 380: 272–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herring, MP, Puetz, TW, O'Connor, PJ, et al. (2012) Effect of exercise training on depressive symptoms among patients with a chronic illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172: 101–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, JG, Diaz, FJ, Lopez, L, et al. (2015) A combined analysis of worldwide studies demonstrates an association between bipolar disorder and tobacco smoking behaviors in adults. Bipolar Disorders, 17: 575–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Josefsson, T, Lindwall, M, Archer, T (2014) Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: meta-analysis and systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24: 259–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kandola, A, Hendrikse, J, Lucassen, PJ, et al. (2016) Aerobic exercise as a tool to improve hippocampal plasticity and function in humans: practical implications for mental health treatment. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10: 373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kandola, A, Ashdown-Franks, G, Stubbs, B, et al. (2019) The association between cardiorespiratory fitness and the incidence of common mental health disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 257: 748–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kandola, AA, Osborn, DPJ, Stubbs, B, et al. (2020) Individual and combined associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and grip strength with common mental disorders: a prospective cohort study in the UK Biobank. BMC Medicine, 18(1): 303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller-Varady, K, Varady, PA, Röh, A, et al. (2018) A systematic review of trials investigating strength training in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 192: 64–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, L, Harrison, M, Richardson, N, et al. (2021) Economic evaluation of ‘Men on the Move’, a ‘real world’ community-based physical activity programme for men. European Journal of Public Health, 31: 156–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khandaker, GM, Cousins, L, Deakin, J, et al. (2015) Inflammation and immunity in schizophrenia: implications for pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Psychiatry, 2: 258–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohl, HW 3rd, Craig, CL, Lambert, EV, et al. (2012) The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. Lancet, 380: 294–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kvam, S, Kleppe, CL, Nordhus, IH, et al. (2016) Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 202: 67–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kyu, HH, Bachman, VF, Alexander, LT, et al. (2016) Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. BMJ, 354: i3857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamoureux, NR, Fitzgerald, JS, Norton, KI, et al. (2019) Temporal trends in the cardiorespiratory fitness of 2,525,827 adults between 1967 and 2016: a systematic review. Sports Medicine, 49: 41–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavebratt, C, Herring, MP, Liu, JJ, et al. (2017) Interleukin-6 and depressive symptom severity in response to physical exercise. Psychiatry Research, 252: 270–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederman, O, Suetani, S, Stanton, R, et al. (2017) Embedding exercise interventions as routine mental health care: implementation strategies in residential, inpatient and community settings. Australasian Psychiatry, 25: 451–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederman, O, Ward, PB, Firth, J, et al. (2019) Does exercise improve sleep quality in individuals with mental illness? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 109: 96–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, DC, Sui, X, Artero, EG, et al. (2011) Long-term effects of changes in cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass index on all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in men: the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study. Circulation, 124: 2483–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, I-M, Shiroma, EJ, Lobelo, F, et al. (2012) Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet, 380: 219–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, X, Zhang, X, Guo, J, et al. (2015) Effects of exercise training on cardiorespiratory fitness and biomarkers of cardiometabolic health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Heart Association, 4(7): e002014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linke, SE, Gallo, LC, Norman, GJ (2011) Attrition and adherence rates of sustained vs. intermittent exercise interventions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 42: 197–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, H, Beard, S, Clissold, N, et al. (2017) Combined aerobic and resistance exercise interventions for individuals with schizophrenia: a systematic review. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 12: 147–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, E, Cowman, M, Brannigan, M, et al. (2018) Examining the barriers to physical activity between active and inactive people with severe mental illness in Ireland. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 15: 139–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwan, D, Harden, SM, Zumbo, BD, et al. (2016) The effectiveness of multi-component goal setting interventions for changing physical activity behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 10: 67–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melo, MCA, Daher, E de F, Albuquerque, SGC, et al. (2016) Exercise in bipolar patients: a systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 198: 32–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2014) Psychosis and Schizophrenia in Adults: Prevention and Management (Clinical Guideline CG178). NICE.Google Scholar
Naylor, C, Das, P, Ross, S, et al. (2016) Bringing Together Physical and Mental Health: A New Frontier for Integrated Care. The King's Fund.Google Scholar
NHS England (2019) The NHS Long Term Plan. NHS (https://www.longtermplan.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/nhs-long-term-plan-version-1.2.pdf).Google Scholar
Osborn, D, Burton, A, Hunter, R, et al. (2018) Clinical and cost-effectiveness of an intervention for reducing cholesterol and cardiovascular risk for people with severe mental illness in English primary care: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry, 5: 145–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pajonk, F-G, Wobrock, T, Gruber, O, et al. (2010) Hippocampal plasticity in response to exercise in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67: 133–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perez-Cruzado, D, Cuesta-Vargas, A, Vera-Garcia, E, et al. (2018) Medication and physical activity and physical fitness in severe mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 267: 19–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Public Health England (2018) Health Matters: Reducing Health Inequalities in Mental Illness. GOV.UK (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-reducing-health-inequalities-in-mental-illness/health-matters-reducing-health-inequalities-in-mental-illness [Accessed: 4 June 2020]).Google Scholar
Robson, D, Haddad, M, Gray, R, et al. (2013) Mental health nursing and physical health care: a cross-sectional study of nurses’ attitudes, practice, and perceived training needs for the physical health care of people with severe mental illness. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 22: 409–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, S, Tiedemann, A, Sherrington, C, et al. (2014) Physical activity interventions for people with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75: 964–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, S, Morell, R, Abdel-Baki, A, et al. (2020a) Assessing physical activity in people with mental illness: 23-country reliability and validity of the simple physical activity questionnaire (SIMPAQ). BMC Psychiatry, 20: 108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbaum, S, Ward, PB, Baldeo, R, et al. (2020b) Changing health workforce attitudes to promote improved physical health in mental health service users: keeping our Staff in Mind (KoSiM). Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 31: 447–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblat, JD, McIntyre, RS (2016) Bipolar disorder and inflammation. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 39: 125–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roux, L, Pratt, M, Tengs, TO, et al. (2008) Cost effectiveness of community-based physical activity interventions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35: 578–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuch, FB, Vancampfort, D, Richards, J, et al. (2016) Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 77: 42–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuch, FB, Vancampfort, D, Firth, J, et al. (2018) Physical activity and incident depression: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175: 631–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuch, FB, Stubbs, B, Meyer, J, et al. (2019) Physical activity protects from incident anxiety: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Depression and Anxiety, 36: 846–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soundy, A, Stubbs, B, Probst, M, et al. (2014a) Barriers to and facilitators of physical activity among persons with schizophrenia: a survey of physical therapists. Psychiatric Services, 65: 693–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soundy, A, Muhamed, A, Stubbs, B, et al. (2014b) The benefits of walking for individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a systematic review. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 21: 410–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stubbs, B, Vancampfort, D, Rosenbaum, S, et al. (2017) An examination of the anxiolytic effects of exercise for people with anxiety and stress-related disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 249: 102–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stubbs, B, Vancampfort, D, Hallgren, M, et al. (2018) EPA guidance on physical activity as a treatment for severe mental illness: a meta-review of the evidence and Position Statement from the European Psychiatric Association (EPA), supported by the International Organization of Physical Therapists in Mental Health (IOPTMH). European Psychiatry, 54: 124–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, D, Turner, A, Lauder, S, et al. (2015) A brief review of exercise, bipolar disorder, and mechanistic pathways. Frontiers in Psychology, 6: 147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomkinson, GR, Lang, JJ, Tremblay, MS (2019) Temporal trends in the cardiorespiratory fitness of children and adolescents representing 19 high-income and upper middle-income countries between 1981 and 2014. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53: 478–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, MS, Aubert, S, Barnes, JD, et al. (2017) Sedentary Behavior Research Network (SBRN) – Terminology Consensus Project process and outcome. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14: 75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, De Hert, M, De Herdt, A, et al. (2013) Associations between physical activity and the built environment in patients with schizophrenia: a multi-centre study. General Hospital Psychiatry, 35: 653–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vancampfort, D, Stubbs, B, Ward, PB, et al. (2015a) Integrating physical activity as medicine in the care of people with severe mental illness. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49: 681–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Rosenbaum, S, Schuch, FB, et al. (2015b) Prevalence and predictors of treatment dropout from physical activity interventions in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. General Hospital Psychiatry, 39: 15–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D (2015) Exercise and cardiorespiratory fitness in people with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 169: 453–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vancampfort, D, Stubbs, B, Sienaert, P, et al. (2016a) A comparison of physical fitness in patients with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and healthy controls. Disability and Rehabilitation, 38: 2047–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Probst, M, Daenen, A, et al. (2016b) Impact of antipsychotic medication on physical activity and physical fitness in adolescents: an exploratory study. Psychiatry Research, 242: 192–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Rosenbaum, S, Schuch, F, et al. (2017a) Cardiorespiratory fitness in severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47: 343–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Firth, J, Schuch, FB, et al. (2017b) Sedentary behavior and physical activity levels in people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. World Psychiatry, 16: 308–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Firth, J, Correll, CU, et al. (2019) The impact of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to improve physical health outcomes in people with schizophrenia: a meta-review of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. World Psychiatry, 18: 53–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Way, K, Kannis-Dymand, L, Lastella, M, et al. (2018) Mental health practitioners’ reported barriers to prescription of exercise for mental health consumers. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 14: 52–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilmot, EG, Edwardson, CL, Achana, FA, et al. (2012) Sedentary time in adults and the association with diabetes, cardiovascular disease and death: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia, 55: 2895–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodward, MLL, Gicas, KM, Warburton, DE, et al. (2018) Hippocampal volume and vasculature before and after exercise in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 202: 158–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2015) Physical Activity and Adults. WHO (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity#:~:text=Adults%20aged%2018%E2%80%9364%20years&text=may%20increase%20moderate%2Dintensity%20aerobic,week%20for%20additional%20health%20benefits).Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2017) Helping People with Severe Mental Disorders Live Longer and Healthier Lives (Policy Brief). WHO.Google Scholar
Wu, Y, Wang, W, Liu, T, et al. (2017) Association of grip strength with risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer in community-dwelling populations: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 18: 551.e17–e35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: PDF

Kandola and Osborn supplementary material

Kandola and Osborn supplementary material 1

Download Kandola and Osborn supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.3 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Kandola and Osborn supplementary material

Kandola and Osborn supplementary material 2

Download Kandola and Osborn supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.3 MB
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.