1. Introduction

Congratulations for either beginning or continuing your journey as a psychology graduate student! From an outsider’s perspective, attending graduate school can be viewed as a very exciting accomplishment. As such, family and friends likely shower you with supportive comments such as, “You’re so smart!”, “We had no doubt you’d get in!”, “We always knew you’d be successful!” While you may certainly share in this excitement, you may also find yourself thinking: “Wow. I really got accepted into graduate school? This had to be a mistake!”, “I doubt that I’m actually qualified.”, “It’s only a matter of time until everyone realizes I’m not as smart as they think.”

If this internal dialogue sounds familiar it’s likely that you’ve experienced (or are currently experiencing) what is formally known as the impostor syndrome, also referred to as the impostor phenomenon. However, don’t worry, because all is not lost. You are indeed qualified, and you certainly do belong in your graduate program. Furthermore, you are not alone in experiencing impostor syndrome. On the contrary, the impostor syndrome is a common (yet seldom discussed) experience that is particularly salient in graduate school. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of impostor syndrome, factors that may influence the intensity of impostor cognitions, and ways that graduate students can adaptively navigate these unhelpful ways of thinking.

2. What is Impostor Syndrome?

The impostor syndrome represents a maladaptive set of cognitions that impedes individuals’ ability to internalize their own success and take pride in their accomplishments. Specifically, the impostor syndrome refers to internal beliefs of intellectual incompetence among high-achieving individuals that are typically accompanied by difficulties internalizing success and chronic fears of being discovered as a “fraud.” Despite objective evidence of professional and/or academic success, individuals who endorse high levels of impostor syndrome often question how they have obtained a particular position or status (“How did I get into this graduate program?”), believe that they have somehow deceived those around them (“My acceptance into this program was due to some kind of error”), and worry that one day their self-perceived sense of fraudulence will be confirmed by others (“Someone will figure out that I don’t belong”).

While initially coined to capture the experiences expressed by high-achieving women (Reference Clance and ImesClance & Imes, 1978), the impostor syndrome is a nearly ubiquitous experience. In fact, one study estimates that up to 70 percent of people in the United States (Reference Matthews and ClanceMatthews & Clance, 1985) will experience impostor syndrome at some point in their lifetime. To this end, scholars have established the relevance of impostor syndrome among both males and females in a range of different contexts including adolescents (Reference Bernard and NeblettBernard & Neblett, 2018), high school students (Reference Cromwell, Brown, Sanchez-Huceles and AdairCromwell et al., 1990), undergraduate and graduate students (Reference Cowie, Nealis, Sherry, Hewitt and FlettCowie et al., 2018; Reference Stone, Saucer, Bailey, Garba, Hurst, Jackson, Krueger and CokleyStone et al., 2018), faculty and professors (Reference HutchinsHutchins, 2015; Reference Hutchins, Penney and SublettHutchins et al., 2018), and medical professionals (Reference Mattie, Gietzen, Davis and PrataMattie et al., 2008; Reference Villwock, Sobin, Koester and HarrisVillwock et al., 2016). In fact, even high-profile figures who have reached the pinnacle of success in their respective professions such as Maya Angelou, Michelle Obama, Tom Hanks, Ryan Reynolds, and Serena Williams (just to name a few) have spoken about their own experiences of impostor syndrome.

Despite its prevalence, impostor syndrome “represents a private, internal, emotional experience” (Reference LaneLane, 2015, p. 117), which may prevent individuals from acknowledging or speaking about their feelings of intellectual incompetence, especially within highly competitive and evaluative contexts such as graduate school. Thus, while it is almost certain that you will encounter conversations about impostor syndrome with peers (and maybe even professors), don’t be surprised if folks are hesitant to have in-depth conversations about the origins or severity of their impostor-related thoughts and feelings. With that being said, it is important to recognize that there may be variation in impostor experiences. For some, impostor syndrome is fleeting and manifests within acute instances of stress that may not cause any marked issues over time. However, for others, impostor syndrome represents a more chronic set of thoughts and feelings that can make their already difficult graduate school journey all the more stressful.

Chronic experiences of impostor syndrome are stressful and taxing, and erroneous self-perceptions of fraudulence (i.e., impostor syndrome thoughts) have even been linked to increased anxiety and depressive symptoms (Reference Austin, Clark, Ross and TaylorAustin et al., 2009; Reference Bernard, Lige, Willis, Sosoo and NeblettBernard et al., 2017; Reference Cokley, Smith, Bernard, Hurst, Jackson, Stone, Awosogba, Saucer, Bailey and RobertsCokley et al., 2017). Furthermore, individuals who experience impostor syndrome may also set extremely high standards of perfection; typically as a strategy to reduce the chances that they will somehow be “discovered” as a fraud (Reference Clance and ImesClance & Imes, 1978; Reference Clance and O’TooleClance & O’Toole, 1987). While these perfectionistic standards may manage the impressions of others, they may also cause individuals to become overly focused on negative evaluations, mistakes, and instances of falling short of their very high standards (i.e., perfection). For instance, although criticism, feedback, and failure represent normative experiences associated with graduate school (e.g., receiving extensive feedback on a research paper, having findings questioned at a research conference, not winning a competitive fellowship), individuals who experience impostor syndrome may be more likely to internalize and misinterpret a lack of success as confirmatory evidence of their perceived lack of ability. As a result, they may experience increased anxiety about future academic-related evaluations. Thus, it follows that individuals with higher levels of impostor syndrome have also been found to report lower levels of self-esteem and lower levels of general and academic self-concept (Reference Cokley, Awad, Smith, Jackson, Awosogba, Hurst, Stone, Blondeau and RobertsCokley et al., 2015; Reference Schubert and BowkerSchubert & Bowker, 2019). In light of this evidence, it is perhaps not surprising that the literature has connected impostor syndrome to symptoms of mental fatigue, exhaustion, and burnout among students pursuing advanced degrees (Reference Legassie, Zibrowski and GoldszmidtLegassie et al., 2008; Reference Villwock, Sobin, Koester and HarrisVillwock et al., 2016).

3. Distinguishing Impostor Syndrome

The impostor syndrome has many similarities with other constructs relating to self-perceptions of competence, yet it represents a conceptually valid and distinct construct (Reference Cozzarelli and MajorCozzarelli & Major, 1990; Reference Kolligian Jr and SternbergKolligian Jr. & Sternberg, 1991). To avoid confusion, it is important to highlight the defining and differentiating characteristics of impostor syndrome from other conceptually similar constructs before moving forward. For example, impostor syndrome and self-efficacy, or an individual’s beliefs regarding their abilities, appear to be similar in nature. However, at a conceptual level, an individual with low self-efficacy might feel and perform poorly on tasks, whereas an individual experiencing impostor syndrome may feel incompetent in spite of objective evidence of competence, such as a strong performance on an exam (Reference LaneLane, 2015; Reference Leary, Patton, Orlando and Wagoner FunkLeary et al., 2000). Thus, while self-efficacy may accurately map onto an individual’s performance on a particular task, feelings of impostor syndrome are inconsistent and in conflict with their high levels of objective success.

Social anxiety and its associated symptoms also bear strong resemblance to impostor syndrome (Reference Leary, Patton, Orlando and Wagoner FunkLeary et al., 2000). However, social anxiety is marked by significant fears of scrutiny from others, which causes considerable impairment in social, academic, or vocational contexts (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In contrast, individuals endorsing high levels of impostor syndrome are high-achieving and excel (Reference Kumar and JagacinskiKumar & Jagacinski, 2006), despite disparaging internal beliefs of intellectual inferiority (Reference Ross and KrukowskiRoss & Krukowski, 2003). As posited by Reference Chrisman, Pieper, Clance, Holland and Glickauf-HughesChrisman and colleagues (1995), impostor cognitions of intellectual incompetence may undergird desires to be perceived by others in a positive light, and as such serve as the impetus for social anxiety.

Finally, it is also important to distinguish impostor syndrome from stereotype threat – the threat of confirming a negative social stereotype about one’s own group (Reference Steele and AronsonSteele & Aronson, 1995). Although similar, research suggests that stereotype threat operates to impair performance when activated within specific evaluative settings and situations (Reference Spencer, Logel and DaviesSpencer et al., 2016). Conversely, impostor syndrome has been conceptualized to permeate beyond any one particular setting (Reference Chrisman, Pieper, Clance, Holland and Glickauf-HughesChrisman et al., 1995). As noted by Reference McClain, Beasley, Jones, Awosogba, Jackson and CokleyMcClain et al. (2016), “the nature of impostor syndrome as an emergent identity might allow impostor cognitions to be present across contexts and, thus, may affect various domains” (p. 103). Therefore, the impostor syndrome may represent a chronic experience that is unbound to a specific context, thereby distinguishing it from the relatively situationally activated nature of stereotype threat.

4. Impostor Syndrome in Graduate School

The academic context is among the most fertile grounds for impostor syndrome to thrive, especially among graduate students. Why might this be? Pursuing a graduate degree is a major commitment that commonly uproots students, placing them within unfamiliar environments that sometimes are a considerable distance from friends and family. This major life transition can feel isolating, particularly at the onset of graduate school, as students are attempting to learn the ropes of a new academic institution. For some students, this transition may feel like a true “fish out of the water” moment, as they begin to learn the expectations and demands of being in graduate school (“You want me to see patients?!”). This is only compounded by the inevitable social comparisons made with cohort members and other graduate students. Indeed, although there is no “right way” to get into graduate school, it is easy to make assumptions about the intellect and capabilities of fellow cohort members who came straight from their undergraduate degree, who had impressive jobs before coming to graduate school, or who come into graduate school with other advanced degrees, at the expense of our own laurels. These comparisons only continue as students matriculate through their program as individuals begin publishing manuscripts, applying for competitive awards or fellowships, and defending theses and dissertations.

From its onset, pursuing a psychology graduate degree can be a particularly stressful time that is characterized by a constant state of evaluation by course professors (e.g., class performance), mentors (e.g., semester evaluations), research reviewers (peer review process), and even clinical patients, which may feel particularly anxiety-provoking and overwhelming. And although the pursuit of a psychology graduate degree comes with milestones worthy of celebration (e.g., having manuscripts published, presenting at conferences), these high points are infrequent and often overshadowed by the more mundane and stressful realities of pursuing a graduate degree (e.g., rejected manuscripts, competing responsibilities, personal demands) that can lead to the development of impostor syndrome.

5. The Impostor Cycle in Graduate School

Although graduate students may readily identify with impostor syndrome, it may be more challenging to provide a first-person account of the precipitating or sequential events that caused impostor cognitions. To this end, the “impostor cycle” represents one possible sequence of events and behavioral patterns that are typical of impostor syndrome and the manifestation of impostor cognitions (Reference Sakulku and AlexanderSakulku & Alexander, 2011). As depicted in Figure 5.1, the impostor cycle begins with an academic- or graduate school-related task (e.g., an exam; teaching a lecture for the first time) in which one’s performance will be evaluated or observed by others. Graduate students with higher baselines of anxieties stemming from fears of negative evaluation may attempt to alleviate these concerns by over-preparing (e.g., excessive studying; overworking to prepare for a client) or self-handicapping behaviors (e.g., procrastination) followed by frantic last-minute preparation. When the task is completed, individuals may experience a brief, yet temporary, sense of relief, which is often followed by positive feedback on performance or praise on successful completion of the initial task. Rather than interpreting positive feedback and objective success as evidence of their own intellectual ability, individuals experiencing impostor syndrome may minimize their accomplishments and instead attribute their success to over-preparation or luck, dependent upon how they approached the initial task. Previous research notes that individuals who experience impostor syndrome hold fixed beliefs about the mechanics of success, and as a result do not equate over-preparation or hard work as a sign of true intellectual ability (Reference ClanceClance, 1985). Thus, when faced with the next task, fears of negative evaluation or failure may only be heightened as impostor cognitions lead individuals to believe that their previous success was erroneous and outside of their control, therefore reinforcing tendencies to over-prepare.

Figure 5.1 Impostor cycle.

(adapted from Reference Sakulku and AlexanderSakulku & Alexander, 2011)

While the impostor cycle represents a general pattern of beliefs and behaviors that may occur throughout graduate school, it is important to acknowledge that this cycle may look different as students matriculate through their program. As an example of these differences, we contrast the experiences of hypothetical first-year and fifth-year students.

6. Correlates of Impostor Syndrome

As mentioned earlier, the graduate school setting is a prime environment for impostor experiences to surface and thrive. Thus, it is important to be aware of where impostor syndrome comes from and what makes it worse. Despite its inception more than 30 years ago, there is little consensus as to where impostor syndrome originates. Several studies have hypothesized various origin points, with some suggesting familial messages (Reference Clance and ImesClance & Imes, 1978), others suggesting self-presentational concerns (Reference Leary, Patton, Orlando and Wagoner FunkLeary et al., 2000), and others suggesting that it may be societal messages and experiences (Reference Bernard and NeblettBernard & Neblett, 2018; Reference Stone, Saucer, Bailey, Garba, Hurst, Jackson, Krueger and CokleyStone et al., 2018). While we may not be able to precisely locate where experiences of impostor syndrome stem from, there is an abundance of research that may shed light onto what makes impostor syndrome worse.

A general consensus in the literature is that impostor syndrome does not exist in a vacuum. Rather, the prevalence, salience, and impact of impostor syndrome within graduate school can be considerably influenced by several individual and contextual factors. To this end, a brief review of these factors is warranted, as some (or many) may resonate with experiences you have had to navigate as you have prepared to begin your graduate degree in psychology, or as you have matriculated through your program. However, as a caveat, the overview presented below represents a brief review of individual and contextual factors related to impostor syndrome and by no means is exhaustive. A more detailed analysis of these factors can be seen in other papers (Reference Bernard and NeblettBernard & Neblett, 2018; Reference Bravata, Watts, Keefer, Madhusudhan, Taylor, Clark, Nelson, Cokley and HaggBravata et al., 2019; Reference Peteet, Brown, Lige and LanawayPeteet et al., 2015a; Reference Sakulku and AlexanderSakulku & Alexander, 2011; Reference Stone, Saucer, Bailey, Garba, Hurst, Jackson, Krueger and CokleyStone et al., 2018).

7. Navigating Impostor Syndrome

If you find yourself resonating with the content of this chapter, you may be thinking “That’s great, but what do we do if we have impostor cognitions? How do we treat it?” With respect to these questions, there is good news and there is okay news. The good news is that conversations about impostor syndrome have ballooned in recent years, with some discussions taking center stage at national conferences (Reference Jaremka, Ackerman, Gawronski, Rule, Sweeny, Tropp, Metz, Molina, Ryan and VickJaremka et al., 2020), making it easier to share experiences and find others who are going through the same thing. The okay news is that only a handful of research has investigated interventions for impostor syndrome. Although limited, this extant research provides valuable insights as to strategies or approaches that can systematically address impostor syndrome.

So, what can be done to alleviate the effects of impostor syndrome? First, if impostor syndrome is disrupting your day-to-day functioning in key areas (school, work, relationships, sleep) then you should consider seeking help from a mental health professional. One great source for help are the university counseling centers, which often support students who experience academic stress, which often includes impostor syndrome. Although impostor syndrome is not formally listed in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), mental health practitioners are typically aware of impostor syndrome and its associations with anxiety and depression. Indeed, several studies have discussed the utility of cognitive-behavioral interventions that are frequently used by mental health professionals (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy) to manage anxious and depressive symptoms, such as uncontrollable worry or decreased motivation, and target distorted or maladaptive cognitions that are related to impostor syndrome (Reference Bernard, Lige, Willis, Sosoo and NeblettBernard et al., 2017, Reference Bernard, Hoggard and Neblett2018). In addition, mental health professionals may know of other resources for managing impostor feelings, such as counseling support groups for graduate students.

Beyond seeking help from a mental health professional, two scientific studies offer more insight as to how to overcome impostor feelings. In the first study, Reference Zanchetta, Junker, Wolf and Traut-MattauschZanchetta and colleagues (2020) sought to assess how well a coaching intervention reduced impostor feelings. The researchers randomly assigned participants to a coaching intervention (treatment) or training intervention (control). Topics in each group included, but were not limited to, creating measurable goals, taking inventory of their abilities, and then completing an activity that helped participants internalize their identified abilities. Although the coaching and training interventions involved nearly identical activities, participants in the coaching intervention received one-on-one coaching to process the activities, whereas individuals in the training condition processed the activities in a small-group format. In all, the coaching intervention was more effective in reducing levels of impostorism. However, what’s really important to note is that each intervention involved learning about and discussing the fear of negative evaluations and the value of not hiding mistakes from others. This is particularly noteworthy given the key role that fears of negative evaluations play in manifestations of impostor syndrome (Reference ClanceClance, 1985; Reference Clance and ImesClance & Imes, 1978). Moreover, the researchers found that acknowledging and discussing fears of evaluation, via the coaching intervention, was the only statistically significant component of the intervention that reduced impostor thoughts and feelings. Thus, above all else, talking about your impostor-related thoughts and feelings to others (e.g., peers, mentors) may be among the more effective ways to reduce the salience of impostor syndrome.

In the second study, researcher Reference CiscoJonathan Cisco (2020) tested the effectiveness of an academic skills training intervention that was specifically designed to reduce impostor feelings in graduate students. This group format intervention aimed to increase students’ comfort with reading and synthesizing academic articles, a common task for graduate students. Four 90-minute interventions were used to (1) introduce and discuss impostor syndrome experiences; (2) normalize the commonness of cultivating scientific literary skills while in graduate school, as opposed to developing those skills prior to graduate school; (3) develop and practice skills for reading academic journals; and (4) develop and practice skills for writing literature reviews. Altogether, the study provided evidence that the academic skills training intervention significantly reduced levels of impostor syndrome for graduate students in the treatment groups relative to students in the control group, and the intervention decreased impostor cognitions across the duration of the intervention (pre-test and post-test levels). Thus, taking steps to discuss and normalize that novel skill acquisition continues well into graduate school may be useful in reducing social comparisons, which may in turn reduce internal perfectionistic pressures that underlie impostor cognitions.

Altogether, the above discussion and available empirical evidence for reducing impostor cognitions can be summarized into four takeaways that may help with managing impostor syndrome. The four takeaways are as follows:

1. 1. Seek professional help if you experience distress that impacts your functioning.

2. 2. Actively resist the temptation to hide your perceived flaws and mistakes.

3. 3. Possibly alone or with a professional, use deep reflection to examine fear of being negatively evaluated.

4. 4. Recognize that skills needed in graduate school are often developed during graduate school (not prior to), and that those skills can improve through support and training.

Beyond the existing empirical evidence, there may be additional strategies one can employ to help prevent or mitigate impostor cognitions and the related stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. To this end, five research-informed strategies are presented next. First, it is important to be able to identify if and when you are experiencing the impostor syndrome. Paying close attention to the vignettes presented in this chapter, reading about other’s experiences of impostor syndrome in books or pop culture writings, or accessing educational resources (e.g., TED Talks, empirical papers, conference workshops) may increase your ability to recognize common signs and situations that are related to the impostor syndrome. These strategies may be useful in helping individuals to identify and label internal thoughts of impostorism that may have otherwise gone unnoticed (e.g., “My research paper probably only received high marks because Dr. Mulki is such a nice person”).

Second, individuals who experience impostor syndrome may feel a need to hide “deficient” or imperfect parts of themselves from others, which aligns with empirical evidence that suggests shame and the impostor syndrome are positively correlated (Reference Cowman and FerrariCowman & Ferrari, 2002). However, hiding one’s suffering and distress may cause an individual to become more isolated and disconnected from crucial social supports that can normalize the impostor experiences and offer positive support. In fact, research suggests that social support is negatively related to impostor syndrome (Reference Bravata, Watts, Keefer, Madhusudhan, Taylor, Clark, Nelson, Cokley and HaggBravata et al., 2019). Therefore, it may be especially important to remain connected to social supports during distressful impostor syndrome experiences. As detailed above, sharing impostor experiences with others can be therapeutic and may actually help to normalize (and even challenge) distorted self-perceptions and beliefs regarding one’s own intellectual ability.

With recent research alluding to the fact that impostor syndrome may diminish in intensity as individuals become more acclimated and experienced with a particular context or task (Reference Rudenga and GravettRudenga & Gravett, 2019), a third strategy is to adopt a growth mindset to manage impostor cognitions. Put forth by psychologist Carol Dweck and colleagues, a growth mindset suggests an individual’s abilities can grow over time, versus remaining fixed and unchangeable (Reference Dweck and YeagerDweck & Yeager, 2019; Reference Yeager and DweckYeager & Dweck, 2012). In other words, your skills and abilities as psychology graduate students, such as scientific writing or analyzing statistical data, are not fixed but instead can be improved over time. In fact, Reference Zanchetta, Junker, Wolf and Traut-MattauschZanchetta and colleagues’ (2020) above impostor syndrome empirical intervention uses Dweck’s mindset framework to conceptualize how a growth mindset could prevent or reduce the impact of impostor cognitions. Specifically, the authors suggest that a fixed mindset can cause individuals to be fearful and avoid constructive feedback that is important for their professional development. Conversely, embracing a growth mindset allows one to recognize that their skills and abilities are malleable, which can be furthered by feedback.

The fourth strategy targets the context of impostor syndrome. As mentioned previously, impostor syndrome does not happen in a vacuum. It is not fully explained by a lone individual characteristic, but instead is likely influenced or exacerbated by the surrounding context. Given that recent research points to a mental health crisis among graduate students, especially for marginalized students (Reference Evans, Bira, Gastelum, Weiss and VanderfordEvans et al., 2018), graduate programs and faculty mentors should continue to create healthier graduate environments. For instance, a systemic approach to preventing or alleviating impostor syndrome distress may be to craft policies that promote self-care and school–life balance. Graduate student associations and committees can also advocate for and put forward possible systemic solutions. At the least, these efforts could require academic programs and graduate schools to widely acknowledge and validate the existence of impostor syndrome in graduate school. Ideally, acknowledgment of this type could give individual graduate students permission to acknowledge their own distress and resultantly seek support.

8. Conclusion

As you prepare or continue to embark on your graduate journey, we hope that this discussion has provided some insight into impostor syndrome, which represents a common experience that will more than likely rear its head on more than one occasion! Despite what this internal dialogue of being an impostor may lead you to believe, questioning your own competence does not reflect an internal fatal flaw, but rather a normative experience that is particularly prevalent within graduate school. Accordingly, it is important to remember that you do belong in graduate school, you are competent, and that many skills are expected to be developed during graduate school, and not prior. As such, we hope this discussion about impostor syndrome adds structure to your current or upcoming graduate school experience and equips you with the knowledge and resources that will help you recognize and challenge thoughts and feelings that question the validity of your own intellectual ability.

Acknowledgments

The preparation of this chapter was partially supported by the National Institute on Mental Health (NIMH) Grant T32MH018869 (MPI CK Danielson, D Kilpatrick) and the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities (K23MD016168-01; PI: Donte L. Bernard). All views and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agencies or respective institutions. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.