Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-vmclg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-16T23:33:03.795Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Exploring working memory and language dominance in heritage bilinguals’ writing processes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 March 2023

Julio Torres Open the ORCID record for Julio Torres [Opens in a new window]
Julio Torres*
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine, Department of Spanish & Portuguese, Irvine, CA 92697, United States.
*
E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Heritage language (HL) bilinguals’ writing skills has been a topic of inquiry in the field of HL education. However, little is still known about HL writers’ writing processes and the contribution of individual differences to these processes remains unexplored. By integrating keystroke-logging and think-aloud methodologies, this study examined 61 Spanish-English HL writers’ pausing and revision behaviors during the completion of Spanish (HL) and English writing tasks. Participants also completed an advanced Ospan working memory test and a language dominance questionnaire. The main findings revealed that, although HL writers’ pausing and revision behaviors did not significantly differ between writing tasks, the nature of their writing processes underlying these writing behaviors fluctuated. Further, language dominance as a multidimensional construct did not contribute to these writing results, whereas participants with higher working memory spent more time addressing orthographic and morphosyntactic encoding episodes during pauses within words when writing in both languages.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 45 , Special Issue 3: Individual differences and L2 writing: Expanding SLA research , July 2023 , pp. 710 - 736
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aalberse, S., Backus, A., & Muysken, P. (2019). Heritage languages: A language contact approach (Vol. 58). John Benjamins Publishing Company.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, A. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2000). Limitations in working memory: Implications for language development. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 35, 95–116.Google ScholarPubMed
Amengual, M. (2016). Acoustic correlates of the Spanish tap-trill contrast: Heritage and L2 Spanish speakers. Heritage Language Journal, 13, 88–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford University Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Bergsleithner, J. M. (2010). Working memory capacity and L2 writing performance. Ciências & Cognição, 15, 2–20.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D. (2016). Dominance in bilingualism: Foundations of measurement, with insights from the study of handedness. In Silva-Corvalán, C. & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.), Language dominance in bilinguals: Issues of measurement and operationalization (85–105). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D., Gertken, L. M., & Amengual, M. (2012). Bilingual Language Profile: An easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism. COERLL, University of Texas at Austin. https://sites.la.utexas.edu/bilingual/Google Scholar
Bowles, M. A. (2010). The think-aloud controversy in second language research. Routledge Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, M. A., & Bello-Uriarte, A. (2019). What impact does heritage language instruction have on Spanish heritage learners’ writing? In Sato, M. & Loewen, S. (Eds.), Evidence-based second language pedagogy (pp. 219–239). New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callahan, L. (2010). US Latinos’ use of written Spanish: Realities and aspirations. Heritage Language Journal, 7, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreira, M., & Kagan, O. (2011). The results of the National Heritage Language Survey: Implications for teaching, curriculum design, and professional development. Foreign Language Annals, 44, 40–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colombi, M. C. (1997). Perfil del discurso escrito: Teoría y práctica. In Colombi, M. C. & Alarcón, F. X. (Eds.), La enseñanza del español a hispanohablantes: Praxis y teoría (pp. 175–189). Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Colombi, M. C. (2021). Developing Spanish heritage language biliteracy. In Montrul, S. & Polinsky, M. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of heritage languages and linguistics (pp. 867–891). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Larios, J. R., Marín, J., & Murphy, L. (2001). A temporal analysis of formulation processes in L1 and L2 writing. Language Learning, 51, 497–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draheim, C., Harrison, T. L., Embreston, S. E., & Engle, R. W. (2017). What item response theory can tell us about the complex span tasks. Psychological Assessment, 30, 1–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellis, R. (2005). Planning and task performance in a second language. John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elola, I. (2018). Writing in Spanish as a second and heritage language: Past, present, and future. Hispania, 100, 119–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elola, I., & Mikulski, A. (2013). Revisions in real time: Spanish heritage language learners’ writing processes in English and Spanish. Foreign Language Annals, 46, 646–660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working memory and language. Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Fairclough, M., & Garza, A. (2018). The lexicon of Spanish heritage speakers. In Potowski, K. (Ed.), The Routledge handbook Spanish as a heritage language (pp. 178–189). Routledge Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatti, A., & O’Neill, T. (2017). Who are heritage writers? Language experiences and writing proficiency. Foreign Language Annals, 50, 734–753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, C. L., Gleason, J. B., & Aycicegi, A. (2006). When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysiological evidence from bilingual speakers. In Pavlenko, A. (Ed.), Bilingual minds: Emotional experience, expression, and representation. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Hedgcock, J., & Lefkowitz, N. (2011). Exploring the learning potential of writing development in heritage language education. In Manchón, R. M. (Ed.), Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language (pp. 209–233). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, D. O. (2020). Working memory and second language development: A complex, dynamic future? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 10, 89–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In Levy, C. M. & Ransdell, S. (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 57–72). Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kellogg, R. T., Whiteford, A. P., Turner, C. E., Cahill, M., & Mertens, A. (2013). Working memory in written composition: An evaluation of the 1996 model. Journal of Writing Research, 5, 159–190.Google Scholar
Kormos, J., & Sáfár, A. (2008). Phonological short-term memory, working memory and foreign language performance in intensive language learning. Bilingualism: Language & Cognition, 11, 261–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leijten, M., & Van Waes, L. (2013). Keystroke logging in writing research: Using Inputlog to analyze and visualize writing processes. Written Communication, 30, 358–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P., & Morgan-Short, K. (2004). To think aloud or not to think aloud: The issue of reactivity in SLA research methodology. Studies in second language acquisition, 26, 35–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, S. (2017). The effects of cognitive aptitudes on the process and product of L2 interaction: A synthetic review. In Gurzynski-Weiss, L. (Ed.), Expanding individual difference research in the interaction approach: Investigating learners, instructors, and researchers (pp. 42–70). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linck, J. A. (2016). Analyzing individual differences in second language research: The benefits of mixed models. In Granena, G., Jackson, D. O., & Yilmaz, Y. (Eds.), Cognitive individual differences in second language processing and acquisition (pp. 105–128). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linck, J. A., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. F. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 861–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindgren, E., & Sullivan, K. P. (2006). Writing and the analysis of revision: An overview. In Sullivan, K. P. H. & Lindgren, E. (Eds.), Computer keystroke logging and writing (pp. 31–44). Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, Y. (2015). Working memory, cognitive resources and L2 writing performance. In Wen, Z., Mota, M. Borges, & McNeill, A. (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 175–188). Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manchón, R. M., & Roca de Larios, J. (2007). On the temporal nature of planning in L1 and L2 composing. Language Learning, 57, 549–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manchón, R. M., Roca de Larios, J., & Murphy, L. (2009). The temporal dimension and problem-solving nature of foreign language composing processes. Implications for theory. In Manchón, R. M. (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching, and research (pp. 102–129). Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormick, T., & Sanz, C. (2022). Working memory and L2 grammar learning among adults. In Schweiter, J. W. & Wen, Z. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of working memory and language (pp. 573–592). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge, processing, and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist, 35, 13–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikulski, A., & Elola, I. (2011). Spanish heritage language learners’ allocation of time to writing processes in English and Spanish. Hispania, 94, 715–733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S. (2016a). The acquisition of heritage languages. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Montrul, S. (2016b). Dominance and proficiency in early and late bilingualism. In Silva-Corvalán, C. & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.), Language dominance in bilinguals: Issues of measurement and operationalization (15–35). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Olive, T. (2012). Working memory in writing. In Berninger, V. W. (Ed.), Past, present, and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology (pp. 485–503). Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., & Torres, J. (2021). Assessment of language proficiency and dominance in monolinguals and bilinguals. In Francis, W. (Ed.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Opportunities and challenges for cognitive research in a global society (pp. 88–105). Routledge Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polinsky, M., & Scontras, G. (2020). Understanding heritage languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23, 4–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Révész, A., & Michel, M. (2019). State of the scholarship: Special issue on methodological advances in L2 writing processes research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41, 491–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Révész, A., Michel, M., & Lee, M. (2017 ). Investigating IELTS academic writing task 2: Relationships between cognitive writing processes, text quality, and working memory. International English Language Testing System Research Reports Online, 2017/3.Google Scholar
Révész, A., Michel, M., & Lee, M. (2019). Exploring second language writers’ pausing and revision behaviors: A mixed-methods study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41, 605–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schilperoord, J. (1996). The distribution of pause time in written text production. In Rijlaarsdam, G., van den Bergh, H., & Couzijn, M. (Eds.), Theories, models, and methodology in writing research (pp. 21–35). Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, A. M. (2003). ¡No me suena! Heritage Spanish speakers’ writing strategies. In Roca, A. & Colombi, M. C. (Eds.), Mi lengua: Spanish as a heritage language in the United States (pp. 235–256). Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, A. M. (2005). Exploring differences and similarities in the writing strategies used by students in SNS courses. In Ortiz López, L. A. & Lacorte, M. (Eds.), Contactos y contextos lingüísticos: El español en los Estados Unidos y en contacto con otras lenguas (pp. 323–333). Lingüística Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
Serafini, E. J. (2023). From differential to dynamic: The role of working memory in second (L2) learning. In Kersten, K. & Winsler, A. (Eds.), Understanding variability in second language acquisition, bilingualism, and cognition: A multi-layered perspective (pp. 268–291). Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Sullivan, K. P. H., & Lindgren, E. (2007). Computer keystroke logging and writing. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Torres, J. (2016). Flipping the classroom: A pedagogical model for promoting heritage language writing skills. In Pascual y Cabo, D. (Ed.), Advances in Spanish as a heritage language (pp. 299–324). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torres, J., & Baralt, M. (2022). El enfoque por tareas en el aprendizaje del español como lengua de herencia. In Pascual y Cabo, D. & Torres, J. (Eds.), Aproximaciones al estudio del español como lengua de herencia (pp. 81–96). Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Torres, K. M., Arrastia-Chisholm, M. C., & Tackett, S. (2020). Perceptions of writing anxiety and self-efficacy among Spanish heritage language learners. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 19, 84–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsai, N., Au, J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2016). Working memory, language processing, and implications of malleability for second language acquisition. In Granena, G., Jackson, D. O., & Yilmaz, Y. (Eds.), Cognitive individual differences in second language processing and acquisition (pp. 69–88). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unsworth, N., Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2005). An automated version of the operation span task. Behavior Research Methods, 37, 498–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valdés, G. (1995). The teaching of minority languages as academic subjects: Pedagogical and theoretical challenges. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 299–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vallejos, C. (2020). Fluency, working memory and second language proficiency in multicompetent writers. [Doctoral dissertation, Georgetown University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.Google Scholar
Vargas Fuentes, N., Kroll, J. F., & Torres, J. (2021). What heritage bilinguals tell us about the language of emotion? Languages, 7, 1–22.Google Scholar
Watanabe, Y., & Bergsleithner, J. (2006). A systematic research synthesis of L2 WM measurements. In Madden-Wood, Z., & Ueki, K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th college-wide conference for graduate students in languages, linguistics, and literature (pp. 47–59). College of Languages, Linguistics, and Literature.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2016). Working memory and second language learning. Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wen, Z., & Jackson, D.O. (2022). Working memory. In Li, S., Hiver, P., & Papi, M. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and individual differences (pp. 54–66). Routledge Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wen, Z. E., & Skehan, P. (2021). Stages of acquisition and the P/E model of working memory: Complementary or contrasting approaches to foreign language aptitude? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 41, 6–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanguas, I., & Lado, B. (2012). Is thinking aloud reactive when writing in the heritage language? Foreign Language Annals, 45, 380–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yi, B., & Luo, S. (2013). Working memory and lexical knowledge in L2 argumentative writing. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 23, 83–102.Google Scholar
Zalbidea, J. (2017). One task fits all? The roles of task complexity, modality, and working memory capacity in L2 performance. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 335–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zalbidea, J., & Sanz, C. (2020). Does learner cognition count on modality? Working memory and L2 morphosyntactic achievement across oral and written tasks. Applied Psycholinguistics, 41, 1171–1196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zyzik, E. (2022). El conocimiento léxico de los hablantes del español como lengua de herencia. In Pascual y Cabo, D. & Torres, J. (Eds.), Aproximaciones al estudio del español como lengua de herencia (pp. 53–65). Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Torres supplementary material

Appendix S1

Download Torres supplementary material(File)
File 14.9 KB
Supplementary material: File

Torres supplementary material

Appendix S2

Download Torres supplementary material(File)
File 13.3 KB
Supplementary material: File

Torres supplementary material

Appendix S3

Download Torres supplementary material(File)
File 14.2 KB