These two books establish spirit writing and divine revelations as a new field in the study of Chinese religions in Western languages. Vincent Goossaert’s monograph offers both historical and theoretical foundations for comprehending spirit-writing as a ritual technique to produce divine revelations. Matthias Schumann and Elena Valussi’s edited volume, stemming from an international conference held in 2019, features sixteen articles by leading scholars from East Asia, Europe, and North America. It explores the diverse practices of spirit-writing in terms of techniques, social organizations, religious affiliations, regional networks, and political ramifications. Together, the two books complement each other to offer a comprehensive history of spirit-writing in Chinese religious life.
Spirit-writing, as defined in both books, refers to ritual techniques that a person deploys, often centering on an altar set up by a religious community, to create the presence of a divinity. A wide range of gods, spirits, and recently deceased souls could be invoked through such ritual means. The divinity would purportedly descend into the altar and impart instructions onto materials such as paper, sand, or incense ashes, using a writing implement (such as a brush, a wicker basket, or a piece of wood) wielded by a medium under divine influence. As a major form of divine revelations in Chinese religions, spirit-writing first emerged in the tenth century, and has since “evolved from being one ritual niche within the repertoire of techniques for producing divine presence to being the most common means of producing revelations in the modern period” (Goosssaert, 11). The ritual practice “lay at the very center of religious life and religious text production” in late imperial and modern China (Schumann and Valussi, 3), contributing to the creation of voluminous religious texts up until contemporary times.
Goossaert’s monograph categorizes Chinese production of divine presence into two models: spontaneous presence and ritualized presence. The former is driven by divine agency through possessions, dreams, and encounters, while the latter involves human agency, including summoning, divination, sacrifice, visualization, and spirit-writing (Chapter 1). The book outlines five major types of divine revelation from the Han dynasty to the tenth century, encompassing three by divinely driven agency (sutras, possession, and encounters), and two by human-driven agency (visualization and presence) (Chapter 2). By the tenth century, the Daoist fashi 法師 priests had begun to employ mediums in controlled possessions for exorcistic and therapeutic purposes, and they thus developed new techniques of making divine presence “perceptible” and open to the public (Chapter 3).
Against this historical background, Goossaert identifies four major turning points in the development of spirit-writing. First, from 1000 to 1400, spirit-writing emerged as the dominant ritual technique of divine presence. Daoist priests codified it to communicate with gods, producing a diverse array of revelational texts including political prophesies, eschatological messages, doctrinal teachings, alchemical liturgies, and moral tracts (Chapter 4 and 5). Second, spirit-writing underwent a “late Ming turn” in the late sixteenth century, along with the rise of jitan 乩壇, or spirit-writing altars, which published a great number of revelational texts and attracted a large following among the gentry elite (Chapter 6). From the late sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century, elite-dominated spirit-writing altars promoted healing, moral teaching, and eschatological worldviews through compiling special canons for major savior gods like Lüzu 呂祖, Wenchang 文昌, Guandi 關帝, and Zhenwu 真武, and through state canonization of these gods (Chapter 7). The third turning point occurred in the nineteenth century, as spirit writing spread beyond elite circles to include sectarian societies. This “sectarian turn” meant that spirit-writing revelations afforded an eschatological platform for understanding catastrophic events such as the Taiping War (1851 to 1864) (Chapter 8). The book concludes with the early twentieth century, marking the last turning point when spirit-writing groups flourished, despite unprecedented challenges posed by the anti-superstition discourse of the modern nation-state.
Goossaert’s monograph provides a chronological and analytical framework to fully appreciate the breadth and depth of the articles in Schumann and Valussi’s extensive volume. Parts 1 and 2 of Schumann and Valussi’s volume survey the history of spirit-writing and explore the diversity of spirit-writing’s terminology and techniques. Goossaert’s discussion of spirit-writing from 1000 to 1400 is presented as Chapter 2 in this edited volume. Wang Chien-chuan’s chapter delves into the use of various ritual techniques from the Song to Ming periods, particularly within spirit-writing communities devoted to the Zhenwu cult at Mount Wudang 武當 and the Zitong 梓潼 cult in Sichuan. Despite persistent official bans, spirit-writing practices remained widespread among literati, commoners, and religious communities, and exerted influence in political affairs (Chapter 3). Hu Jiechen studies the terminology and typology of spirit-writing, discussing how emic terms such as “fuji” 扶箕 (supporting the sieve), “fuluan” 扶鸞 (supporting the phoenix), and “fuji” 扶乩 (supporting the divination-stylus) emerged along with the invention of new instruments, indicating new methods by which specific communities communicated with the divine. Since the late Ming, human mediums have become increasingly crucial in lending credibility to lengthy revelations and gaining elite acceptance of spirit-writing rituals (Chapter 5). Fan Chun-wu shows how printing technology and urban culture disseminated knowledge of spirit-writing techniques, making divine revelations more accessible to the general population from the late Ming onward. The influence of Western science and spiritualism gave rise to a new technique known as diexian 碟仙 (transcendent of a plate) in the early twentieth century. Utilizing a small, white porcelain plate to communicate with the unseen, the technique was called the “Scientific Numinous Stylus” that combined spirit-writing with modern “psychic science.” These technical innovations helped sustain spirit-writing practices amidst waves of anti-superstition education (Chapter 6).
Part 3 of Schumann and Valussi’s volume focuses on the cultural elite’s intense engagement with spirit-writing altars, a significant development beginning with what Goossaert identifies as the “late Ming turn.” Daniel Burton-Rose’s study of Peng Dingqiu 彭定求 (1645–1719) illustrates how a Qing literatus devotee of the god Wenchang synthesized Neo-Confucian teachings with spirit-writing altar activities to promote moral transformation and self-cultivation (Chapter 7). Michael Lackner shows that Ji Yun 紀昀 (1724–1805), a prominent scholar-official in Qing China, similarly bridged elite and popular cultures through his intense interest in mantic arts and spirit-writing (Chapter 8). Elite enthusiasm for spirit-writing altars continued well into modern cosmopolitan settings, as Zhu Mingchuan demonstrates with the case of the Guo 郭 family’s Liu-Han altar 了閒壇. Originating from local religious culture in Fuzhou, Fujian, in the late Qing period, the altar expanded regionally and had garnered interest from faculty members and renowned scholars at Hong Kong’s leading academic institutions by the mid-twentieth century (Chapter 9).
Parts 4 and 5 of Schumann and Valussi’s volume present a nuanced exploration of spirit-writing in the two centuries following what Goossaert terms the “sectarian turn.” By the early twentieth century, spirit writing altars had become ubiquitous among redemptive societies––new religious organizations advocating philanthropy, public service, salvation, and moral transformation through syncretic teachings of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Matthias Schumann investigates one such society, The New Religion to Save the World (Jiushi xinjiao 救世新教), founded in 1924 around a spirit-writing altar dedicated to the god Lü Dongbin 呂洞賓. Composed mainly of members of the elite from the Beiyang 北洋 government, The New Religion to Save the World employed spirit-writing to communicate with Confucian sages, including Confucius himself, in efforts to reestablish Confucian orthodoxy amidst China’s tumultuous changes (Chapter 10). Nikolas Broy examines the crucial role that spirit-writing has played in the development of the popular sect Way of Pervading Unity (Yiguandao一貫道) from the mid-nineteenth century to the present. Spirit revelations validated the sect’s doctrinal claims and institutional establishments in Republican China, post-1949 Taiwan, and post-World War II Japan (Chapter 12). Focusing respectively on the Lingnan and Chaozhou areas in Guangdong Province, Ichiko Shiga and Li Guoping each discuss how transregional networks of spirit-writing movements integrated eschatological discourses with local religious cultures (Chapter 13) and fostered the prosperity of diverse charitable halls in local society (Chapter 14). Many spirit-writing altars migrated from Guangdong to Hong Kong to evade political suppression over time. Luo Dan explores how one such altar, the Fei Ngan Tung Daoism and Buddhism Society 飛雁洞佛道社, adapted to Hong Kong’s urban milieu while maintaining legitimacy through its Daoist origins in mainland China (Chapter 15).
Both volumes acknowledge that spirit-writing has been a male-dominated tradition since at least the Song dynasty, with women’s roles obscured in both historical records and scholarly research. It is crucial, therefore, to highlight the articles from the edited volume that strive to uncover the significance of women and to address the gender issue. In Part 1, Valussi presents a critically important gendered history of spirit-writing. Drawing on extensive scholarship, including contributions within the volume, Valussi documents that spirit-writing originated in the inner quarters as a practice exclusive to women, dedicated to the female deity Zigu 紫姑 (Purple Lady). Over time, however, male Daoist priests and literati asserted control by claiming authority over rituals and texts. Despite male dominance, female leaders and participants persisted at spirit-writing altars. Female deities and deceased family members descended into these altars to strengthen familial bonds and to guide women in their pursuit of self-cultivation (Chapter 4).
In Part 4, Xia Shi’s article offers valuable insights into the gendered teachings of the Daoyuan 道院 (School of the Way), a redemptive society based in Shandong during the early twentieth century. Female members of the society, who were predominantly married, non-elite, and moderately educated, were excluded from the male-controlled spirit-writing rituals. Nevertheless, deities tailored their teachings specifically to women, using colloquial language to criticize “superstitious” activities, realign traditional female virtues with modern gender ideals, and encourage participation in public charity work. Through spirit revelations, the Daoyuan positioned itself as a force to modernization, aiming to “reform the women’s world” (Chapter 11).
In Part 5, Paul Katz’s article serves as both an overview and a case study of spirit-writing temples, known as phoenix halls (luantang 鸞堂), in Taiwan. Through ethnographic research conducted in Puli, Central Taiwan, Katz illustrates how phoenix halls attract members from diverse social backgrounds and nurture a wide array of religious activities. He emphasizes the substantial female membership in phoenix halls, noting that these women, primarily elderly and middle-aged, are not directly involved in spirit-writing rites but are actively involved in scripture chanting and other activities for self-cultivation (Chapter 16). Ichiko Shiga’s aforementioned article also dedicates a section to Jade Princess, a female deity whose spirit-written talismans and medical prescriptions have garnered sustained support from female villagers in western Guandong.
To varying degrees, these four contributions underscore the importance of uncovering women’s voices and female power within familiar texts and ritual traditions that have been historically controlled and perpetuated by male members of the social elite. They also highlight the significance of integrating historical records with fieldwork in order to more fully recognize women’s contributions, which are often conveyed orally, physically, and informally, and thus remain “invisible” within textual traditions and formal ritual structures.
In addition to the valuable coverage of women and gender, these two volumes have important implications for the study of religion on three fronts. First, Goossaert’s findings offer a substantial revision of existing scholarship on the early history of spirit-writing. He challenges the narrow perception of fashi, or Daoist ritual masters, as mere clerics. From the Song dynasty onward, the term encompassed a diverse group of educated individuals, including scholars and officials, who underwent initiation and became highly sought-after to perform spirit-writing rituals. In this context, Goossaert contends that spirit-writing flourished during the period from 1000 to 1400, but not so much as a pastime for lay literati as has been thought. Instead, Daoist exorcistic rituals produced a far greater number of spirit-written texts and served as major channels for divine revelations, which profoundly influenced later practices. By proposing a “Daoist model,” Goossaert calls attention to the pivotal role of Daoist ritual traditions in shaping the history of spirit-writing and more broadly, the history of Chinese religions.
Second, these two volumes present a compelling argument that spirit-writing constitutes a central aspect of Chinese religion. While Daoist liturgy and theology remain foundational in most spirit-writing cults, scholars in both volumes extensively demonstrate how these cults, largely led by members of the political and cultural elite of the time, actively engaged local religious culture with Confucian, Buddhist, and even Christian teachings. The diversity of these cults in terms of doctrines, ritual techniques, genres, and membership challenges scholars to move beyond conventional notions such as “syncretism of the Three Teachings” or “Confucian rationalism” to reassess the intricate roles of gentry elite, interpretations of religiosity, and the concept of “religion” itself in Chinese social life.
Third, both volumes represent remarkable efforts in integrating research by Chinese and Japanese scholars from East Asia into Western scholarship. Goossaert’s monograph draws extensively from the latest Chinese and Japanese scholarly works on the subject. Particularly commendable is Schumman and Valussi’s volume, which makes some of the most representative and most influential of these works available in English. The volume’s claim to explore the thematic and stylistic diversity of spirit-writing (Schumman and Valussi, 6) is well supported by the editors’ commitment to geographical and academic diversity among the contributors. A separate section on biographical information of all contributors would allow readers to more fully appreciate that diversity. Additionally, given the varied academic backgrounds of the authors, the volume would have benefitted from minimizing occasional repetition of similar historical information across multiple articles.
In summary, the outstanding scholarship in these two books greatly enriches and transforms scholarly understanding of revelations in Chinese history, and inspires new insights into the study of Chinese religions. Both volumes are suitable for adoption in graduate and upper-level undergraduate seminar courses. Goossaert’s monograph serves as a comprehensive introduction to the history of divine revelations, Daoism, and Chinese eschatological tradition. Meanwhile, the diverse chapters in Schumman and Valussi’s volume cover a wide range of topics, including history, ethnography, religious studies, and gender studies. Both books are essential reading for all scholars and students of Chinese history and religion, as well as for those interested in the comparative study of divine revelations.
