Mobility

The study of mobility has a longstanding history in Greece due to the country’s favourable geographical location and historical role as a hub for various civilizations. Osteoarchaeological research on human mobility can be approached through three distinct methods: isotopic analysis, biodistances, and ancient DNA. Isotopic analysis, mostly employing strontium and oxygen isotopes, is a primary tool for determining past mobility patterns by distinguishing between local and non-local individuals, as well as identifying first-generation migrants (Britton Reference Britton, Richards and Britton2020). The ratio of strontium isotopes (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) present in human dental tissues reflects the food consumed. Thus, individuals who primarily consume locally sourced food will have ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios in dental enamel that closely match those of the surrounding environment, if they were buried in the same location where they grew up (Bentley Reference Bentley2006). Such individuals are classified as ‘locals’. Conversely, individuals who have non-local origin would exhibit different ratios in their enamel compared to the local environment. Additionally, the oxygen isotopes (δ¹⁸O) present in skeletal remains are influenced by water consumption and can provide insight into an individual’s geographical origin based on regional precipitation patterns (Pederzani and Britton Reference Pederzani and Britton2019). However, isotopic analysis can rarely, if ever, definitively determine an individual’s origin because isotopic values tend to overlap across different regions. Moreover, isotopic analyses often fail to trace short-term residency and recurrent mobility events (Prowse Reference Prowse, De Ligt and Tacoma2016), while various anthropogenic and environmental factors can affect isotopic values in skeletal remains. These factors include, among others, the consumption of imported food and water (which could make local individuals appear non-local, since their isotopic signatures would not match the local values but the values of the area from which the food/water is imported), water treatment methods (e.g. boiling water increases its δ¹⁸O value), the sea-spray effect (i.e. the alteration of bioavailable strontium isotope ratios in coastal areas as a result of the transfer of sea-sourced strontium to terrestrial environments), and the use of fertilizers (modern fertilizers exhibit variable strontium isotopic composition and their use in agriculture alters the regional bioavailable strontium isotope values) (Maurer et al. Reference Maurer, Galer, Knipper, Beierlein, Nunn, Peters, Tütken, Alt and Schöne2012; Lightfoot and O’Connell Reference Lightfoot and O’Connell2016; Alonzi et al. Reference Alonzi, Pacheco-Forés, Gordon, Kuijt and Knudson2020).

Argyro Nafplioti has been at the forefront of isotopic paleomobility research in Greece, as demonstrated in her earlier works (e.g. Nafplioti Reference Nafplioti2008). In a recent study, she used strontium and oxygen isotopes to investigate mobility patterns in the Pre- and Protopalatial population of Sissi, Crete (ID8207, ID8241; Nafplioti et al. Reference Nafplioti, Driessen, Schmitt and Crevecoeur2021). The findings indicated a local population that may have engaged in regional mobility (i.e. within a 5km radius from the site or from nearby locations in the Malia bay). Three possible explanations were proposed for this mobility: 1. accessing diverse food sources in the surrounding area to buffer against climate fluctuations and vulnerability; 2. concentration/nucleation of settlements, typical of the Late Prepalatial period; 3. burial of individuals from nearby locations in the Sissi cemetery. This research highlights the value of isotopic analysis in studying ancient mobility patterns, supporting regional mobility in this case, while also underscoring the limitations in confidently identifying the reasons behind such mobility events.

Another interesting study utilized strontium isotopes exclusively but examined multiple sites in north Greece, namely Stavroupoli (ID6432), Nea Nikomedeia, Paliambela (ID325, ID9603), Makriyalos, Revenia, Kleitos (ID1976, ID2726), and Toumba Kremastis Koiladas, spanning various phases of the Neolithic period (Whelton et al. Reference Whelton, Lewis, Halstead, Isaakidou, Triantaphyllou, Tzevelekidi, Kotsakis and Evershed2018). The isotopic analysis revealed minimal mobility during the Early and Middle Neolithic periods, but increased movement in the Late Neolithic phase. These isotopically-defined mobility patterns were further supported by the pottery distribution and exchange networks, stressing the importance of examining mobility and connectivity using different lines of evidence.

Biodistance analysis is another commonly used method for studying mobility. This approach relies on the hereditary nature of various skeletal and dental characteristics, suggesting that individuals sharing specific anatomical traits are more likely to be genetically related than those who do not possess such traits (Rathmann Reference Rathmann, Nikita and Rehren2024). The most informative anatomical traits for biodistance analyses are typically found in the teeth and cranium, including both measurable and non-measurable features (e.g. Sjøvold Reference Sjøvold, van Vark and Howells1984; Carson Reference Carson2006; Irish et al. Reference Irish, Morez, Girdland Flink, Phillips and Scott2020). For this reason, data collection for biodistance analysis involves gathering measurements of dental and cranial dimensions, as well as recording the presence or absence of non-measurable dental and cranial traits. These data are then utilized to calculate different distance measures, providing insight into the biological distance between individuals or groups being studied (e.g. Sutter and Verano Reference Sutter and Verano2007; Nikita, Mattingly and Lahr Reference Nikita, Mattingly and Lahr2012; Velasco Reference Velasco2018; Mardini et al. Reference Mardini, Badawi, Zaven, Gergian and Nikita2023a; Rathmann et al. Reference Rathmann, Lismann, Francken and Spatzier2023). Biodistance analyses offer a cost-effective, non-destructive, and quick approach to assessing biological similarities between groups. However, these analyses offer only indirect insights into patterns of mobility. A small biodistance between two groups typically suggests a common ancestry and potential gene flow, indicating the movement of individuals and exchange of genetic material between populations. Nonetheless, biodistance analyses alone do not provide information on the timing, frequency, or extent of the gene flow events.

An example of the recent use of this methodology investigated mobility and connectivity during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Greece and other parts of the Balkans (Michael et al. Reference Michael, Fibiger, Moutafi, Šlaus, Katsimicha, Novak and Molloy2023). The research included skeletal assemblages from east Crete to Romania, with the Greek material coming from Achlada (ID6604, ID8159) in Macedonia, Halasmenos, Vasiliki, Istron Kalo Chorio, and Azoria in Crete, Kallithea and Voudeni in the Peloponnese, and Kamini in Attica. The authors estimated the biodistance among these assemblages to test whether an isolation by distance model is valid in their dataset. According to this model, communities that exhibit geographical proximity should demonstrate a small biodistance compared to more distant groups. The results indeed supported an isolation by distance model for the assemblages under study, which in turn suggests a process of gradual mobility and integration rather than migrations and population displacements (which would have disrupted the expected pattern of smaller biodistance among geographically proximal groups). This study demonstrates the effectiveness of biodistance analyses in exploring broader patterns of mobility, while also emphasizing the need for further refinement of the results through isotopic analysis or other methods.

Biodistance analysis has also been used to study mobility at a much smaller scale. An example of such an application involved the examination of kinship and postmarital residence patterns at the Tsepi cemetery (ID6140; Fig. 8.1) in prehistoric Marathon (Prevedorou and Stojanowski Reference Prevedorou and Stojanowski2017). The intra-cemetery biodistances showed that various forms of kinship (biological, fictive, practical) were reflected in the burial practices. Biological lineages influenced the spatial arrangement of tombs to some extent, while male exogamy was postulated on the grounds of greater phenotypic (morphological) variation in males compared to females.

Fig. 8.1. Marathon, Tsepi. Tomb 43, © ASA.

Ancient DNA (aDNA) is another key method that provides insights into past human migration patterns by examining diachronic changes in genetic ancestry (e.g. Anthony Reference Anthony2023; Schmid and Schiffels Reference Schmid and Schiffels2023). Ancient DNA studies typically explore shared ancestry among individuals in various geographical and temporal contexts, focusing on different parts of the genome (e.g. mitochondrial DNA for female-driven mobility but also whole-genome studies) (e.g. Underhill and Kivisild Reference Underhill and Kivisild2007; Llamas et al. Reference Llamas, Fehren-Schmitz, Valverde, Soubrier, Mallick, Rohland, Nordenfelt, Valdiosera, Richards, Rohrlach, Barreto Romero, Espinoza, Tomasto Cagigao, Watson Jiménez, Makowski, Santiago Leboreiro Reyna, Mansilla Lory, Ballivián Torrez, Rivera, Burger, Ceruti, Reinhard, Spencer Wells, Politis, Santoro, Standen, Smith, Reich, Ho, Cooper and Haak2016; Bai et al. Reference Bai, Guo, Narisu, Lan, Wu, Xing, Zhang, Bond, Pei, Zhang, Zhang, Jirimutu, Zhang, Yang, Morigenbatu, Zhang, Ding, Guan, Cao, Lu, Liu, Li, Dang, Jiang, Wang, Xu, Wang, Liu, Luo, Gao, Li, Wu, Yang, Meng, Ning, Hashenqimuge, Wu, Wang, Suyalatu, Liu, Ye, Wu, Leppälä, Li, Fang, Chen, Xu, Li, Liu, Xu, Gignoux, Yang, Brody, Wang, Kristiansen, Burenbatu, Zhou and Yin2018; Steinrücken et al. Reference Steinrücken, Kamm, Spence and Song2019; Wang et al. Reference Wang, Mathieson, O’Connell and Schiffels2020; Figueiro Reference Figueiro2024). However, aDNA analysis can be costly and may be ineffective in environments with poor genetic material preservation.

In recent years, there has been a notable increase in aDNA studies in Greece, focused on prehistoric remains, following a global trend. This trend is associated with recent major advances in aDNA methodology (e.g. decontamination and sequencing methods), coupled with enhanced interest for periods for which few other lines of evidence are available, such as historical texts. A recent paper by Nuno Silva and colleagues (Reference Silva, Kreutzer, Souleles, Triantaphyllou, Kotsakis, Urem-Kotsou, Halstead, Efstratiou, Kotsos, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Adaktylou, Chondroyianni-Metoki, Pappa, Ziota, Sampson, Papathanasiou, Vitelli, Cullen, Kyparissi-Apostolika, Zeeb Lanz, Peters, Rio, Wegmann, Burger, Currat and Papageorgopoulou2022) examined the levels of mitochondrial diversity in Neolithic Greek populations and the association between these populations and hunter-gatherers and farmers along the Danubian Neolithic expansion route. The aim of this comparison was to explore the timing and character of the European Neolithic expansion. The Greek assemblages included Theopetra Cave (ID813) in Thessaly, Maroulas (ID2825) on Crete, Revenia, Makriyalos, Paliambela, Stavroupoli, Toumba Kremastis Koiladas, Kleitos, Mavropigi (Filotsairi) (ID8513), Xirolimni (Portes), and Nea Nikomedeia in Macedonia, Franchthi Cave (ID4879) in the Peloponnese, Makri in Thrace, and Tharrounia (ID14974) on Euboea. The results revealed genetic homogeneity in Greece until the Neolithic era, but a discontinuity between the Neolithic population and modern Greeks. Additionally, after the rapid spread of the Neolithic culture, mobility along the Danube expansion route decreased and genetic inputs from local hunter-gatherers on farming communities increased.

As another recent example, Eirini Skourtanioti and colleagues (Reference Skourtanioti, Ringbauer, Gnecchi Ruscone, Bianco, Burri, Freund, Furtwängler, Gomes Martins, Knolle, Neumann, Tiliakou, Agelarakis, Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Betancourt, Hallager, Jones, Kakavogianni, Kanta, Karkanas, Kataki, Kissas, Koehl, Kvapil, Maran, McGeorge, Papadimitriou, Papathanasiou, Papazoglou-Manioudaki, Paschalidis, Polychronakou-Sgouritsa, Preve, Prevedorou, Price, Protopapadaki, Schmidt-Schultz, Schultz, Shelton, Wiener, Krause, Jeong and Stockhammer2023) examined genome-wide data from Neolithic to Iron Age individuals from the Greek mainland, Crete, and the Aegean Islands. Specifically, the sites under examination covered Aposelemis, Chania (ancient Kydonia) (ID15859, ID18542), Hagios Charalambos, and Krousonas on Crete, Aidonia (ID6918, ID6919, ID6920; Fig. 8.2) in the Peloponnese, Glyka Nera (ID5358, ID6038, ID6089) in Attica, Tiryns (ID116, ID752, ID9161, ID10139, ID16849) and Mygdalia (ID2340) in the Peloponnese, Nea Styra (ID18501) on Euboea, Koukounaries on Paros, and Lazarides (ID99, ID242, ID1928) on Aegina. A shared ancestry was found between early Cretan farmers and people from the Neolithic Aegean, and significant gene flow from Anatolia to Crete marked the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Additionally, gene flow from central/eastern Europe to mainland Greece was identified for the Middle Bronze Age and it spread to Crete from the seventeenth to twelfth centuries BC. Finally, this study found a high degree of consanguineous endogamy, further supporting the interconnectedness of the Aegean region.

Fig. 8.2. Aidonia. Aerial photograph showing the dromos and chamber of the two new unplundered tombs in the E part of the Mycenaean cemetery, as well as tombs from the previous excavation. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture/Ephorate of Antiquities of Corinthia; Nemea Center for Classical Archaeology.

Diet

The study of diet has been a prominent subject of research in Greek osteoarchaeology, with almost 40 studies appearing since 2015 (Bi(bli)oArch database). Various methods, including the examination of dental diseases and dental wear as well as stable isotope analyses, have been utilized in this direction.

Dental diseases such as caries and calculus have been linked to the consumption of specific types of food, with caries associated with high carbohydrate intake and calculus associated with both high carbohydrate and high protein intake (Hillson 2018; Reference Hillson2023; Ullinger and Loewen Reference Ullinger, Loewen and Grauer2022). However, factors beyond diet, such as hormones, saliva composition, oral hygiene, and tooth use, also play an important role in the development of dental diseases (Christersson et al. Reference Christersson, Grossi, Dunford, Machtei and Genco1992; Pitts et al. Reference Pitts, Zero, Marsh, Ekstrand, Weintraub, Ramos-Gomez, Tagami, Twetman, Tsakos and Ismail2017). Therefore, while there is a clear association between dental diseases and dietary habits, this relationship is indirect (Vergidou and Nikita Reference Vergidou, Nikita, Nikita and Rehren2024).

While dental diseases are commonly studied in osteoarchaeological research, there are few studies that specifically focus on these diseases and their correlation with diet among ancient Greek populations. One such study compared the oral health of males and females in Roman Pontokomi-Vrysi (Provincia Macedonia) (ID9711) and concluded that there was little differentiation in diet between sexes (Vergidou et al. Reference Vergidou, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Voutsaki and Nikita2021). In contrast, a separate study in Hellenistic to Late Antique Knossos identified an overall higher frequency of caries in males compared to females, suggesting varying levels of carbohydrate consumption (Moles Reference Moles2023). The same study also examined temporal changes in dental diseases and diet at Knossos and noted an increase in caries rates during Roman times. The cause for this increase could not be securely identified, but alternative interpretations included: a) a more cariogenic diet or changes in food processing that increased food stickiness; b) increased connectivity and/or new populations arriving in Knossos, which changed food availability, food consumption patterns, or dental hygiene practices; or c) overall greater prosperity during this period, which might make more refined, hence cariogenic, foods available for consumption.

Isotope analysis, particularly of carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N), offers another valuable approach to understanding past dietary practices. This technique operates on the premise that the isotopic composition of an individual’s skeletal/dental tissues reflects that of their diet (DeNiro and Epstein Reference DeNiro and Epstein1978). The variation in isotopic signatures among different foods is influenced by several factors, including the photosynthetic pathways of plants, differences between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and trophic level enrichment (DeNiro and Epstein Reference DeNiro and Epstein1978; Reference DeNiro and Epstein1981; Schoeninger and DeNiro Reference Schoeninger and DeNiro1984; Schoeninger Reference Schoeninger1985).

Isotope analyses have become a prominent tool in Greek osteoarchaeology, as demonstrated by Anastasia Papathanasiou and colleagues (Reference Papathanasiou, Fox and Richards2015) and the contributions therein. Such studies have investigated the consumption of different types of plants and proteins across different archaeological assemblages and demographic groups (e.g. Vergidou et al. Reference Vergidou, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Malama, Darakis, Dee, Voutsaki, Nikita and Vaiglova2023 for Roman Macedonia). Moreover, studies have linked dietary patterns to mortuary data and associated social structures (e.g. Panagiotopoulou et al. Reference Panagiotopoulou, van der Plicht, Papathanasiou, Voutsaki, Nikolaou and Tsiouka2016 found differences in the consumption of C3 and C4 plants as well as animal protein depending on the individuals’ age, sex, and funerary offerings in Early Iron Age Halos (ID9026, ID17058; Fig. 8.3). Additionally, isotope analyses have been used to examine infant feeding practices, particularly breastfeeding and weaning (e.g. Kwok, Garvie-Lok and Katzenberg Reference Kwok, Garvie-Lok and Katzenberg2018 for Byzantine Nemea; Ganiatsou et al. Reference Ganiatsou, Vika, Georgiadou, Protopsalti and Papageorgopoulou2022; Reference Ganiatsou, Georgiadou, Souleles, Aidonis, Protopsalti, Tzevreni, Konstantinidou, Vasileiadou, Siegmund and Papageorgopoulou2023 for Roman Thessaloniki), but also the association between limited breast milk consumption and physiological stress (Bantavanou et al. Reference Bantavanou, Ganiatsou, Souleles, Georgiadou, Xanthopoulou, Aidonis and Papageorgopoulou2024). Diachronic changes in dietary patterns in relation to social, political, cultural, and economic developments represent another line of research in isotopic dietary studies in Greece (e.g. Moles et al. Reference Moles, Reade, Jourdan and Stevens2022 for Hellenistic to Late Antique Knossos). Finally, in a few cases, isotopic analyses have been applied to human, plant, and animal remains simultaneously to investigate diet alongside agricultural and animal husbandry practices (e.g. Nitsch et al. Reference Nitsch, Andreou, Creuzieux, Gardeisen, Halstead, Isaakidou, Karathanou, Kotsachristou, Nikolaidou, Papanthimou, Petridou, Triantaphyllou, Valamoti, Vasileiadou and Bogaard2017 for Early Bronze Age–Late Bronze Age Archontiko (ID6730) and Middle Bronze Age–Late Bronze Age Toumba Thessaloniki (ID828); Vaiglova et al. Reference Vaiglova, Halstead, Pappa, Triantaphyllou, Valamoti, Evans, Fraser, Karkanas, Kay, Lee-Thorp and Bogaard2018 for Neolithic Makriyalos).

Fig. 8.3. Platanos Almyrou, Halos. Iron Age necropolis. © EfA.

A study by Courtney McConnan-Borstad and colleagues (Reference McConnan-Borstad, Garvie-Lok and Katsonopoulou2018) is noteworthy for its examination of the impact of natural events on dietary patterns. The study investigated dietary trends from the Hellenistic to Byzantine period in Helike to determine if meat restrictions that applied during fasting days in the Byzantine period could be detected isotopically. Although the meat restrictions would be expected to result in higher fish consumption in Byzantine times, the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope results revealed that the diet of Byzantine period individuals actually contained fewer marine resources compared to those in the Hellenistic period. Similarly, Roman diet was based on terrestrial resources with limited marine inputs. The authors suggest that these temporal trends may not reflect cultural practices, but they may instead be linked to a lagoon that formed after the 373 BC earthquake, facilitating access to aquatic resources temporarily.

Palaeopathology

Palaeopathology involves the study of diseases in past individuals. Diseases of diverse aetiology may leave evidence on the human skeleton (e.g. congenital, dental, joint, infectious, circulatory, metabolic, endocrine, neoplastic, trauma) (Grauer Reference Grauer2023). Thus, palaeopathology can offer important insights on past life quality, medical knowledge, (structural) violence, social care practices, and more.

Recent research on Greek palaeopathology tends to incorporate the study of diseases within a broader osteoarchaeological context, rather than as isolated findings. This approach involves integrating palaeopathological data with other evidence, such as demography and diet. Despite this trend, there are a few studies that have specifically examined various pathological conditions present in ancient Greek skeletal remains.

Chryssa Vergidou and colleagues (Reference Vergidou, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Voutsaki and Nikita2022) studied various lesions indicative of physiological and mechanical stress, as well as instances of trauma in a Roman period group from Pontokomi-Vrysi in Upper Macedonia, focusing on sex- and age-related patterns (see also above Vergidou et al. Reference Vergidou, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Voutsaki and Nikita2021 for dietary patterns from the same assemblage). Their findings suggested greater mechanical stress among males, indicating some sex-based division of labour within this community. Furthermore, the population appeared resilient based on the physiological stress indicators in adults and juveniles.

Other studies have focused on more specific pathologies identified on single individuals. For instance, Paraskevi Tritsaroli (Reference Tritsaroli2018) documented a case of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in a male individual from the Byzantine church of Taxiarches in Attica, a condition often associated with high social status (although this association has been subject to criticism: Rogers and Waldron Reference Rogers and Waldron2001). In another study, Susan Kirkpatrick Smith and Maria Liston (Reference Kirkpatrick Smith and Liston2020) identified a case of myositis ossificans traumatica in the lumbar vertebrae of an adult from Late Bronze Age Athens. Additionally, Asterios Aidonis and colleagues (Reference Aidonis, Papavramidou, Moraitis and Papageorgopoulou2021) investigated four cases of trepanation, a surgical procedure whereby a hole is opened into the cranium, in females from the ancient Greek colony of Akanthos. All individuals survived the procedure, even briefly. Interestingly, trepanation was performed using scraping and drilling, deviating from Hippocratic recommendations.

In concluding the palaeopathology section, we should mention a study that did not analyse human bones but instead used soil sediment surrounding the pelvic bones in burials from the Neolithic to Byzantine period in two sites (Kephala and Ayia Irini) on the Greek island of Kea (Anastasiou et al. Reference Anastasiou, Papathanasiou, Schepartz and Mitchell2018). The study revealed the presence of intestinal helminth eggs (whipworm – Trichuris trichiura and roundworm – Ascaris lumbricoides) in four individuals, highlighting the exposure of individuals to parasites and stressing the importance of more systematic soil sampling and associated analyses.

Activity patterns

The exact activities in which individuals have been involved in the past cannot be determined from skeletal remains (Jurmain et al. Reference Jurmain, Cardoso, Henderson, Villotte and Grauer2011). However, the skeleton, being a living tissue, reacts to external stimuli by either forming new bone or resorbing it and adjusting its shape biomechanically (Ruff, Holt and Trinkaus Reference Ruff, Holt and Trinkaus2006). Therefore, it is feasible to broadly evaluate levels of mechanical stress, compare stress levels between different sexes or other groups, and make relative assessments of activity patterns, especially when supported by additional evidence such as historical records, ethnographic data, or grave goods associated with specific craftspeople (Becker Reference Becker2019; Wesp Reference Wesp2020; Mardini et al. Reference Mardini, Badawi, Zaven, Gergian and Nikita2023b; Nikita and Radini Reference Nikita and Radini2023).

Osteoarchaeological research often examines mechanical stress and activity patterns by analysing pathological conditions such as osteoarthritis and Schmorl’s nodes. This approach was utilized by Chryssa Vergidou and colleagues (Reference Vergidou, Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Voutsaki and Nikita2022) in their investigation of male–female division of labour in Roman Macedonia (see Palaeopathology section). Another method involves studying muscle attachment sites on bones to understand habitual behaviours, as seen in the analysis of the people of Archaic Phaleron (ID6141; Fig. 8.4) by Fotios Alexandros Karakostis and colleagues (Reference Karakostis, Buikstra, Prevedorou, Hannigan, Hotaling, Hotz, Liedl, Moraitis, Siek, Waltenberger, Widrick and Harvati2021). The authors captured the morphology of hand muscle attachment sites using three-dimensional morphometrics, and compared the resulting physical activity patterns between the general population and a subgroup of male skeletons who had suffered violent deaths. The results supported distinct patterns of activities between the males of the two groups, with the individuals suffering a violent death exhibiting a prominent power-grasping tendency, suggesting engagement in more strenuous manual labour during their lifetime compared to the general male population.

Fig. 8.4. Phaleron. Eastern part of the cemetery (Esplanade Sector) revealed in 2016. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture/Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and Islands.

Multi-approach studies

Various bioarchaeological studies seek to gain a comprehensive understanding of the living conditions of past communities by combining data on demography, pathology, diet, and other aspects of life that can be inferred from skeletal remains. For instance, Anna Karligkioti and colleagues (Reference Karligkioti, Douni, Mexi, Michailidi and Nikita2023) found high levels of hardship in rural populations in Attica (Paiania, Koropi, Varambas, Agia Marina, Xereas) from the Classical to the Roman period. Temporally, individuals from the earlier periods showed higher mechanical stress but lower physiological stress compared to those of later periods. With regard to sex differences, no significant differences were found between males and females in physiological stress. However, labour division changed between the Classical and Roman periods since the former was characterized by no sex difference in manual labour, while the latter witnessed greater mechanical stress among males compared to females. Although any interpretations emanating from this study are limited by the small sample sizes, it underscores the necessity of bringing together multiple lines of osteoarchaeological evidence.

Similarly, Efthymia Nikita and colleagues (Reference Nikita, Schrock, Sabetai and Vlachogianni2019) assessed changes in quality of life and patterns of mobility over time in the region of Boeotia, focusing on the Akraiphia cemetery (ID10636). The analysis of palaeopathological evidence, physiological stress markers, and dental wear supported harder living conditions during the Hellenistic, Roman, and post-Roman periods, though similar living standards for males and females across time. Furthermore, the study’s analysis of biodistances revealed a break in population continuity between the Hellenistic and Roman periods, potentially associated with increased gene flow/mobility within the Roman Empire. Also in Boeotia, Paraskevi Tritsaroli and colleagues (Reference Tritsaroli, Mion, Herrscher, André and Vaxevanis2022) performed palaeopathological and stable isotopes analyses on Byzantine and post-Byzantine period individuals from Hagios Sozon in Orchomenos. Their findings indicated a lifestyle that was neither harsh nor easy compared to other sites, evidence of mobility, a terrestrial diet, and lack of significant consumption of freshwater foods despite the proximity to Lake Copais. The study additionally explored the burial practices at Hagios Sozon, shedding light on aspects of social organization as evidenced through a family burial structure and the mortuary treatment for preterms, perinates, and infants.

Another study integrating skeletal and funerary data focused on the Late Bronze Age Achlada (ID8159) community in Florina. Dimitra Michael and colleagues (Reference Michael, Fibiger, Ziota, Gkelou and Molloy2021) examined the impact of economic marginalization on the daily lives of Achlada’s inhabitants. Although health, diet, and mechanical stress were similar in Achlada and other Mycenaean settlements, physiological stress was higher in the individuals from Achlada, suggesting a greater hardship that was potentially due to limited connectivity with major trade routes. Specifically, the authors hypothesized that, due to its limited network connections, the community of Achlada had reduced access to reciprocal intercommunity exchange networks that could act as a buffer at times of hardship, leading to poorer health and dietary outcomes and subsequently higher levels of physiological stress. Furthermore, at an intra-assemblage level, this study found differences between Achlada males and females in terms of various skeletal markers. Specifically, males showed higher levels of mechanical stress, while females exhibited higher physiological stress during childhood/adolescence. In addition, enamel hypoplastic defects, which represent physiological stress markers and form during childhood, were more frequent in middle and old middle-aged males than females, which led the authors to the conclusion that males may have had better childhood stress coping mechanisms than females.

Funerary archaeology

Osteoarchaeological investigations, instead of concentrating on health, disease, diet, mobility, and other mostly biological parameters mentioned earlier, may instead have a social anthropological focus, delving into the funerary practices surrounding the deceased. Such studies analyse taphonomic indicators, such as the representation and spatial distribution of skeletal elements, weathering and fragmentation patterns, signs of burning or cut marks, level of skeletal articulation, and other factors to understand how bodies were treated postmortem and what insights can be gleaned about the cultural beliefs surrounding death (Weiss-Krejci Reference Weiss-Krejci, Agarwal and Glencross2011; Williams and Giles Reference Williams and Giles2016).

Research in funerary archaeology in Greek contexts has primarily focused on prehistoric collections, exploring the diverse beliefs and practices surrounding death in different societies and periods. Sevasti Triantaphyllou (Reference Triantaphyllou2016) has observed complex patterns of manipulation of deceased individuals in Pre-and Protopalatial Crete (Kephala Petras, Kamilari (ID11719), Moni Odigitria (ID9914, ID11723), Livari-Skiadi), highlighting the intricate processes adopted by the living to establish connections with the dead (direct ancestors and collective past). Similarly, elaborate mortuary customs involving very different processes in the creation of secondary deposits have been documented in Late Bronze Age Kirrha, Phocis (ID7921, ID8604; Lagia et al. Reference Lagia, Moutafi, Orgeolet, Skorda, Zurbach, Dakouri-Hild and Boyd2016). For example, one cist grave contained a fully articulated skeleton on the uppermost context, the heavily commingled bones of a second individual on the east side of the middle layer, and a rectangular cist to the west of the middle layer containing the densely packed bones of a third individual. Another cist grave housed the partially articulated skeleton of a young child in the upper layer and the commingled remains of at least three adults in a lower layer, while a third cist grave contained the primary and secondary burials of two infants. Similarly, earth pits had been used for primary burials, as well as for single and multiple secondary burials. This complexity in burial customs was interpreted as a means to build connections between the living and the ancestors and stress lineage continuity at a community level.

Research by Ioanna Moutafi and Sofia Voutsaki (Reference Moutafi and Voutsaki2016) at the Mycenaean Ayios Vasilios North Cemetery in Laconia (Fig. 8.5) provides another example of varied funerary practices and secondary treatment of the deceased in prehistory. In this cemetery, differences in funerary treatment appear to have been driven by the age-at-death of the deceased. Furthermore, the mortuary practices gradually evolved to encompass different forms of secondary treatment of the deceased (e.g. skeletal disarticulation, commingling, and relocation), which may emphasize broader concepts of lineage and descent. In parallel, the co-existence of various burial practices (e.g. contracted and extended burials, intramural and extramural graves, small pits and large cists) suggested tensions between tradition and innovation as well as integration and differentiation. It is also important to mention Ioanna Moutafi’s (Reference Moutafi2021) study on funerary practices and their social implications in Mycenaean Voudeni, Achaea. This research showed that the association between social change and mortuary practices is often reflected in subtle shifts in the treatment of the deceased.

Fig. 8.5. Agios Vasilios. Cist grave Tomb 23 and the pit for infant burials. © ASA.