Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T09:52:20.135Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Subsurface scientific exploration of extraterrestrial environments (MINAR 5): analogue science, technology and education in the Boulby Mine, UK

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 July 2018

Charles S. Cockell ,
John Holt ,
Jim Campbell ,
Harrison Groseman ,
Jean-Luc Josset ,
Tomaso R. R. Bontognali ,
Audra Phelps ,
Lilit Hakobyan ,
Libby Kuretn  and
Annalea Beattie
...Show all authors
Charles S. Cockell*
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
John Holt
Affiliation:
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Jim Campbell
Affiliation:
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Harrison Groseman
Affiliation:
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Jean-Luc Josset
Affiliation:
Space Exploration Institute, Neuchatel, Switzerland
Tomaso R. R. Bontognali
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Audra Phelps
Affiliation:
Spaceward Bound, NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Lilit Hakobyan
Affiliation:
Spaceward Bound, NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Libby Kuretn
Affiliation:
Spaceward Bound, NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Annalea Beattie
Affiliation:
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
Jen Blank
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Rosalba Bonaccorsi
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA SETI Institute's Carl Sagan Center, California, USA
Christopher McKay
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Anushree Shirvastava
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Carol Stoker
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
David Willson
Affiliation:
NASA Ames Research Center, California, USA
Scott McLaughlin
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
Sam Payler
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
Adam Stevens
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
Jennifer Wadsworth
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
Loredana Bessone
Affiliation:
European Astronaut Center, European Space Agency, Cologne, Germany
Matthias Maurer
Affiliation:
European Astronaut Center, European Space Agency, Cologne, Germany
Francesco Sauro
Affiliation:
University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Javier Martin-Torres
Affiliation:
UK Centre for Astrobiology, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (UGR-CSIC), Granada, Spain
Maria-Paz Zorzano
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Torrejon de Ardoz, 28850 Madrid, Spain
Anshuman Bhardwaj
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
Alvaro Soria-Salinas
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
Thasshwin Mathanlal
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
Miracle Israel Nazarious
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
Abhilash Vakkada Ramachandran
Affiliation:
Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
Parag Vaishampayan
Affiliation:
Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
Lisa Guan
Affiliation:
Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
Scott M. Perl
Affiliation:
California Institute of Technology/NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA Mineral Sciences, Los Angeles Natural History Museum, Pasadena, California, USA
Jon Telling
Affiliation:
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
Ian M. Boothroyd
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Newcastle, UK
Ollie Tyson
Affiliation:
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
James Realff
Affiliation:
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
Joseph Rowbottom
Affiliation:
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
Boris Laurent
Affiliation:
University of Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, UK
Matt Gunn
Affiliation:
University of Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, UK
Shaily Shah
Affiliation:
Kalam Center, New Delhi, India
Srijan Singh
Affiliation:
Kalam Center, New Delhi, India
Sean Paling
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Tom Edwards
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Louise Yeoman
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Emma Meehan
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Christopher Toth
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Paul Scovell
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
Barbara Suckling
Affiliation:
Boulby Underground Laboratory, Boulby, UK
*
Author for correspondence: Charles S. Cockell, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The deep subsurface of other planetary bodies is of special interest for robotic and human exploration. The subsurface provides access to planetary interior processes, thus yielding insights into planetary formation and evolution. On Mars, the subsurface might harbour the most habitable conditions. In the context of human exploration, the subsurface can provide refugia for habitation from extreme surface conditions. We describe the fifth Mine Analogue Research (MINAR 5) programme at 1 km depth in the Boulby Mine, UK in collaboration with Spaceward Bound NASA and the Kalam Centre, India, to test instruments and methods for the robotic and human exploration of deep environments on the Moon and Mars. The geological context in Permian evaporites provides an analogue to evaporitic materials on other planetary bodies such as Mars. A wide range of sample acquisition instruments (NASA drills, Small Planetary Impulse Tool (SPLIT) robotic hammer, universal sampling bags), analytical instruments (Raman spectroscopy, Close-Up Imager, Minion DNA sequencing technology, methane stable isotope analysis, biomolecule and metabolic life detection instruments) and environmental monitoring equipment (passive air particle sampler, particle detectors and environmental monitoring equipment) was deployed in an integrated campaign. Investigations included studying the geochemical signatures of chloride and sulphate evaporitic minerals, testing methods for life detection and planetary protection around human-tended operations, and investigations on the radiation environment of the deep subsurface. The MINAR analogue activity occurs in an active mine, showing how the development of space exploration technology can be used to contribute to addressing immediate Earth-based challenges. During the campaign, in collaboration with European Space Agency (ESA), MINAR was used for astronaut familiarization with future exploration tools and techniques. The campaign was used to develop primary and secondary school and primary to secondary transition curriculum materials on-site during the campaign which was focused on a classroom extra vehicular activity simulation.

Keywords

Analog researchastrobiologyMarssubsurfacetechnology
Type
Review Article
Information
International Journal of Astrobiology , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , April 2019 , pp. 157 - 182
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The online version of this article has been updated since original publication. A notice detailing the change has also been published

References

Andrews-Hanna, JC, Zuber, MT, Arvidson, RE and Wiseman, SM (2010) Early Mars hydrology: Meridiani playa deposits and the sedimentary record of Arabia Terra. The Journal of Geophysical Research 115, E06002.Google Scholar
Balkwill, DL, Leach, FR, Wilson, JT, McNabb, JF and White, DC (1988) Equivalence of microbial biomass measures based on membrane lipid and cell wall components, adenosine triphosphate, and direct counts in subsurface aquifer sediments. Microbial Ecology 16, 73–84.Google Scholar
Balme, MR, Curtis-Rouse, MC, Banham, S, Barnes, D, Barnes, R, Bauer, A, Bedford, C, Bridges, J, Butcher, FEG, Caballo, P, Caldwell, A, Coates, A, Cousins, C, Davis, J, Dequaire, J, Edwards, P, Fawdon, P, Furuya, K, Gadd, M, Get, P, Griffiths, A, Grindrod, PM, Gunn, M, Gupta, S, Hansen, R, Harris, JK, Holt, J, Huber, B, Huntly, C, Hutchinson, I, Jackson, L, Kay, S, Kybert, S, Lerman, HN, McHugh, M, McMahon, W, Muller, J-P, Paar, G, Preston, LJ, Schwenzer, S, Stabbins, R, Tao, Y, Traxler, C, Turner, S, Tyler, L, Venn, S, Walker, H, Wright, J and Yeomans, B (2016) UK Space Agency: Mars Utah Rover Field Investigation 2016 (MURFI 2016): overview of mission, aims and progress. 48th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2017.Google Scholar
Barbieri, R and Stivaletta, N (2011) Continental evaporites and the search for evidence of life on Mars. Geological Journal 46, 513–524.Google Scholar
Bettini, A (2011) Underground laboratories. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 626–627, S64–S68.Google Scholar
Bonaccorsi, R and Stoker, CR (2008) Science results from a Mars drilling simulation (Rio Tinto, Spain) and ground truth for remote science observations. Astrobiology 8, 967–985.Google Scholar
Bonaccorsi, R, McKay, CP and Chen, B (2010) Biomass and habitability potential of clay minerals- and iron-rich environments: testing novel analogs for Mars Science Laboratory landing sites candidates. Philosophical Magazine 90, 2309.Google Scholar
Boston, PJ, Ivanov, MV and McKay, CP (1992) On the possibility of chemosynthetic ecosystems in subsurface habitats on Mars. Icarus 95, 300–308.Google Scholar
Bowler, S (2013) From outer space to mining. Astronomy and Geophysics 54, 3.1.–33.3.Google Scholar
Bridges, JC and Grady, MM (1999) A halite-siderite-anhydrite-chlorapatite assemblage in Nakhla: mineralogical evidence for evaporites on Mars. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 34, 407–415.Google Scholar
Bridges, JC and Grady, MM (2000) Evaporite mineral assemblages in the Nakhlite (Martian) Meteorites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 176, 267–279.Google Scholar
Castro-Wallace, SL, Chiu, CY, John, KK, Stahl, SE, Rubins, KH, McIntyre, ABR, Dworkin, JP, Lupisella, ML, Smith, DJ, Botkin, DJ, Stephenson, TA, Juul, S, Turner, DJ, Izquierdo, F, Federman, S, Stryke, D, Somasekar, S, Alexander, N, Yu, G, Mason, CE and Burton, AS (2017) Nanopore sequencing and genome assembly on the international space station. Scientific Reports 7, Article number: 18022.Google Scholar
Clark, BC, Morris, RV, McLennan, SM, Gellert, R, Jolliff, B, Knoll, AH, Squyres, SW, Lowenstein, TK, Ming, DW, Tosca, NJ, Yen, A, Christensen, PR, Gorevan, S, Bruckner, J, Calvin, W, Dreibus, G, Farrand, W, Klingelhoefer, G, Waenke, H, Zipfel, J, Bell III, JF, Grotzinger, J, McSween, HY and Rieder, R (2005) Chemistry and mineralogy of outcrops at Meridiani Planum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 240, 73–94.Google Scholar
Cockell, CS, Payler, S, Paling, S and McLuckie, D (2013) The Boulby International Subsurface Astrobiology Laboratory. Astronomy and Geophysics 54, 2.25–2.27.Google Scholar
Cushing, GE, Titus, TN, Wynne, JJ and Christensen, PR (2007) THEMIS observes possible cave skylights on Mars. Geophysical Research Letters 34, L17201.Google Scholar
De Angelis, SH (2017) Earth science at the UK's deepest laboratory. Geology Today 33, 132–137.Google Scholar
De Sanctis, MC, Raponi, A, Ammannito, E, Ciarniello, M, Toplis, MJ, McSween, HY, Castillo-Rogez, JC, Ehlmann, BL, Carrozzo, FG, Marchi, S, Tosi, F, Zambon, F, Capaccioni, F, Capria, MT, Fonte, S, Formisano, M, Frigeri, A, Giardino, M, Longobardo, A, Magni, G, Palomba, E, McFadden, LA, Pieters, CM, Jaumann, R, Schenk, P, Mugnuolo, R, Raymond, CA and Russell, CT (2016) Bright carbonate deposits as evidence of aqueous alteration on Ceres. Nature 536, 54–57.Google Scholar
Delumyea, RG and Schenk, GH (1976) Lead (II)-manganese (II) energy transfer in sodium chloride pellets. Analytical Chemistry 48, 95–100.Google Scholar
Ehlmann, BL, Mustard, JF, Murchie, SL, Bibring, JP, Meunier, A, Fraeman, AA and Langevin, Y (2011) Subsurface water and clay mineral formation during the early history of Mars. Nature 479, 53–60.Google Scholar
Eigenbrode, J, Benning, LG, Maule, J, Wainwright, N, Steele, A and Amundsen, HEF & AMASE 2006 Team (2009) A field-based cleaning protocol for sampling devices used in life-detection studies. Astrobiology 9, 455–465.Google Scholar
ESA (2008) Technology Readiness Levels Handbook for Space Applications. Paris: ESA.Google Scholar
Gorobets, BS and Rogojine, AA (2002) Luminescence Spectra of Minerals, vol. 78. Moscow: All-Russia Institute for Mineral Resources (VIMS).Google Scholar
Hitchman, SP, Darling, WG and Williams, GM (1989). Stable Isotope Ratios in Methane Containing Gases in the United Kingdom (British Geological Survey Technical Report WE/89/30).Google Scholar
Hofmann, BA (2008) Morphological biosignatures from subsurface environments: recognition on planetary missions. Space Science Reviews 135, 245–254.Google Scholar
Hynek, BM, Osterloo, MK and Kierein-Young, KS (2015) Late-stage formation of Martian chloride salts through ponding and evaporation. Geology 43, 787–790.Google Scholar
Jain, M, Olsen, HE, Paten, B and Akeson, M (2016) The Oxford Nanopore MinION: delivery of nanopore sequencing to the genomics community. Genome Biology 17, 239.Google Scholar
Johnson, SS, Zaikova, E, Goerlitz, DS, Bai, Y and Tighe, SW (2017) Real-time DNA sequencing in the Antarctic Dry Valleys using the Oxford Nanopore Sequencer. Journal of Biomolecular Techniques 28, 2–7.Google Scholar
Josset, JL, Souchon, A, Josset, M and Cockell, CS (2014) ExoMars CLUPI Instrument Testing at MINAR II. EPSC Abstracts, EPSC2014-658.Google Scholar
Josset, JL, Westall, F, Hofmann, BA, Spray, J, Cockell, CS, Kempe, S, Griffiths, AD, Cristina de Sanctis, M, Colangeli, L, Koschny, D, Föllmi, K, Verrecchia, E, Diamond, L, Josset, M, Javaux, EJ, Esposito, F, Gunn, M, Souchon, AL, Bontognali, T, Korablev, O, Erkman, S, Paar, G, Ulamec, S, Foucher, F, Martin, P, Verhaeghe, A, Tanevski, M and Vago, JL (2017) The Close-Up Imager onboard the ESA ExoMars rover: objectives, description, operations, and science validation activities. Astrobiology 17, 595–611.Google Scholar
Langevin, Y, Poulet, F, Bibring, JP and Gondet, B (2005) Sulfates in the north polar region of Mars detected by OMEGA/Mars Express. Science 307, 1584–1586.Google Scholar
MacRae, CM and Wilson, NC (2008) Luminescence database I – minerals and materials. Microscopy and Microanalysis 14, 184–204.Google Scholar
Martin-Torres, FJ, Zorzano, MP, Valentin-Serrano, P, Harri, AM, Genzer, M, Kemppinen, O, Rivera-Valentin, EG, Jun, I, Wray, J, Madsen, MB, Goetz, W, McEwan, AS, Hardgrove, C, Renno, N, Chevrier, VF, Mischna, M, Navarro-Gonzalez, R, Martinez-Frias, J, Conrad, P, McConnochie, T, Cockell, CS, Berger, G, Vasavada, AR, Sumner, D and Vaniman, D (2015) Transient liquid water and water activity at Gale crater on Mars. Nature Geoscience 8, 357–361.Google Scholar
Martínez, GM and Renno, NO (2013) Water and brines on Mars: current evidence and implications for MSL. Space Science Reviews 175, 29–51.Google Scholar
Maule, J, Toporski, J and Steele, A (2006 a) How lively are volcanic hot spring environments? In situ field analysis in Kamchatka, Russia. Astrobiology 6, 209.Google Scholar
Maule, J, Steele, A, Burbank, D, Eppler, D, Kosmo, J, Ross, A, Wainwright, N, Child, A, Flores, G, Monaco, L, Graziosi, D and Splawn, K (2006 b) Monitoring forward contamination during simulated surface extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at Meteor Crater, Arizona: implications for human exploration of the moon and Mars. Astrobiology 6, 275.Google Scholar
McKay, CP, Stoker, CR, Glass, BJ, Davé, AI, Davila, AF, Heldmann, JL, Marinova, MM, Fairen, AG, Quinn, RC, Zacny, KA, Paulsen, G, Smith, PH, Parro, V, Andersen, DT, Hecht, MH, Lacelle, D and Pollard, WH (2013) The Icebreaker Life Mission to Mars: a search for biomolecular evidence for life. Astrobiology 13, 334–353.Google Scholar
McLennan, SM, Bell, JF, Calvin, WM, Christensen, PR, Clark, BC, de Souza, PA, Farmer, J, Farrand, WH, Fike, DA, Gellert, R, Ghosh, A, Glotch, TD, Grotzinger, JP, Hahn, B, Herkenhoff, KE, Hurowitz, JA, Johnson, JR, Johnson, SS, Jolliff, B, Klingelhöfer, G, Knoll, AH, Learner, Z, Malino, MC, McSween, HY, Pocock, J, Ruff, SW, Soderblom, LA, Squyres, SW, Tosca, NJ, Watters, WA, Wyatt, MB and Yen, A (2005) Provenance and diagenesis of the evaporite-bearing burns formation, Meridiani Planum, Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 240, 95–121.Google Scholar
Michalski, JR and Nils, PB (2010) Deep crustal carbonate rocks exposed by meteor impact on Mars. Nature Geoscience 3, 751–755.Google Scholar
Miller, D, Bonaccorsi, R and Zacny, KA (2008) Design and practices for use of automated drilling and sample handling on MARTE while minimizing terrestrial and cross contamination. Astrobiology 8, 947–955.Google Scholar
Murphy, A and Paling, S (2012) The Boulby Mine Underground Science Facility: the search for dark matter, and beyond. Nuclear Physics News 22, 19–24.Google Scholar
Ojha, L, Wilhelm, MB, Murchie, SL, McEwen, AS, Wray, JJ, Hanley, J, Masse, M and Chojnacki, M (2015) Spectral evidence for hydrated salts in recurring slope lineae on Mars. Nature Geoscience 8, 829–832.Google Scholar
Osterloo, MM, Hamilton, VE, Bandfield, JL, Glotch, TD, Baldridge, AM, Christensen, PR, Tornabene, LL and Anderson, FS (2008) Chloride-bearing materials in the southern highlands of Mars. Science 319, 1651–1654.Google Scholar
Osterloo, MM, Anderson, FS, Hamilton, VE and Hynek, BM (2010) Geologic context of proposed chloride-bearing materials on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, E10.Google Scholar
Payler, SJ, Biddle, JF, Coates, A, Cousins, CR, Cross, RE, Cullen, DC, Downs, MT, Direito, SOL, Gray, AL, Genis, J, Gunn, M, Hansford, GM, Harkness, P, Holt, J, Josset, JL, Li, X, Lees, DS, Lim, DSS, McHugh, M, McLuckie, D, Meehan, E, Paling, SM, Souchon, A, Yeoman, L and Cockell, CS (2016) Planetary science and exploration in the deep subsurface: results from the MINAR program, Boulby Mine, UK. International Journal of Astrobiology 15, 333–344.Google Scholar
Picardi, G, Plaut, JJ, Biccari, D, Bombaci, O, Calabrese, D, Cartacci, M, Cicchetti, A, Clifford, SM, Edenhofer, P, Farrell, WM, Federico, C, Frigeri, A, Gurnett, DA, Hagfors, T, Heggy, E, Herique, A, Huff, RL, Ivanov, AB, Johnson, WT, Jordan, RL, Kirchner, DL, Kofman, W, Leuschen, CJ, Nielsen, E, Orosei, R, Pettinelli, E, Phillips, RJ, Plettemeier, D, Safaeinili, A, Seu, R, Stofan, ER, Vannaroni, G, Watters, TR, Zampolini, E (2005) Radar soundings of the subsurface of Mars. Science 310, 1925–1928.Google Scholar
Platonov, A (1979) Color of Minerals. Kiev: Naukova Dumka (in Russian).Google Scholar
Poole, RT, Liesegang, J, Leckey, RCG and Jenkin, JG (1975) Electronic band structure of the alkali halides. II. Critical survey of theoretical calculations. Physical Review B 11, 5190.Google Scholar
Quick, J, Loman, NJ, Duraffour, S, Simpson, JT, Severi, E, Cowley, L, Bore, JA, Koundouno, R, Dudas, G, Mikhail, A, Ouédraogo, N, Afrough, B, Bah, A, Baum, JH, Becker-Ziaja, B, Boettcher, JP, Cabeza-Cabrerizo, M, Camino-Sanchez, A, Carter, LL, Doerrbecker, J, Enkirch, T, Dorival, IGG, Hetzelt, N, Hinzmann, J, Holm, T, Kafetzopoulou, LE, Koropogui, M, Kosgey, A, Kuisma, E, Logue, CH, Mazzarelli, A, Meisel, S, Mertens, M, Michel, J, Ngabo, D, Nitzsche, K, Pallash, E, Patrono, LV, Portmann, J, Repits, JG, Rickett, NY, Sachse, A, Singethan, K, Vitoriano, I, Yemanaberhan, RL, Zekeng, EG, Trina, R, Bello, A, Sall, AA, Faye, O, Faye, O, Magassouba, N, Williams, CV, Amburgey, V, Winona, L, Davis, E, Gerlach, J, Washington, F, Monteil, V, Jourdain, M, Bererd, M, Camara, A, Somlare, H, Camara, A, Gerard, M, Bado, G, Baillet, B, Delaune, D, Nebie, KY, Diarra, A, Savane, Y, Pallawo, RB, Gutierrez, GJ, Milhano, N, Roger, I, Williams, CJ, Yattara, F, Lewandowski, K, Taylor, J, Rachwal, P, Turner, D, Pollakis, G, Hiscox, JA, Matthews, DA, O'Shea, MK, Johnston, AM, Wilson, D, Hutley, E, Smit, E, Di Caro, A, Woelfel, R, Stoecker, K, Fleischmann, E, Gabriel, M, Weller, SA, Koivogui, L, Diallo, B, Keita, S, Rambaut, A, Formenty, P, Gunther, S and Carroll, MW (2016) Real-time, portable genome sequencing for Ebola surveillance. Nature 530, 228–232.Google Scholar
Richter, L, Coste, P, Gromov, V, Hochan, H, Pinna, S and Richter, H-E (2001) Development of the ‘planetary underground tool’ subsurface soil sampler for the Mars express ‘Beagle 2’ lander. Advances in Space Research 28, 1225–1230.Google Scholar
Saul, DJ, Aislabie, JM, Brown, CE, Harris, L and Foght, JM (2005) Hydrocarbon contamination changes the bacterial diversity of soil from around Scott Base, Antarctica. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 53, 141–155.Google Scholar
Smith, NJT (2012) The development of deep underground science facilities. Nuclear Physics B – Proceedings Supplements 229–232, 333–341.Google Scholar
Smith, HD and McKay, CP (2005) Drilling in ancient permafrost on Mars for evidence of a second genesis of life. Planetary and Space Science 53, 1302–1308.Google Scholar
Squyres, SW, Grotzinger, JP, Arvidson, RE, Bell, JF 3rd, Calvin, W, Christensen, PR, Clark, BC, Crisp, JA, Farrand, WH, Herkenhoff, KE, Johnson, JR, Klingelhöfer, G, Knoll, AH, McLennan, SM, McSween, HY Jr, Morris, RV, Rice, JW Jr, Rieder, R and Soderblom, LA (2004) In situ evidence for an ancient aqueous environment at Meridiani Planum, Mars. Science 306, 1709–1714.Google Scholar
Stein, NT, Ehlmann, BL, Palomba, E, De Sanctis, MC, Nathues, A, Hiesinge, H, Ammannito, E, Raymond, CA, .Jaumann, R, Longobardo, A and Russell, CT (2018) The formation and evolution of bright spots on Ceres. Icarus (in press).Google Scholar
Vago, JL, Westall, F, Coates, AJ, Jaumann, R, Korablev, O, Ciarletti, V, Mitrofanov, I, Josset, JL, De Sanctis, MC, Bibring, JP and Rull, F (2017) Habitability on early Mars and the search for biosignatures with the ExoMars Rover. Astrobiology 17, 471–510.Google Scholar
Watters, TR, Leuschen, CJ, Plaut, JJ, Picardi, G, Safaeinili, A, Clifford, SM, Farrell, WM, Ivanov, AB, Phillips, RJ and Stofan, ER (2006) MARSIS radar sounder evidence of buried basins in the northern lowlands of Mars. Nature 444, 905–908.Google Scholar
Whiticar, MJ (1999) Carbon and hydrogen isotope systematics of bacterial formation and oxidation of methane. Chemical Geology 161, 291–314.Google Scholar
Williams, KE, McKay, CP, Toon, OB and Head, JW (2010) Do ice caves exist on Mars? Icarus 209, 358–368.Google Scholar
Woods, PJE (1979) The geology of Boulby Mine. Economic Geology 74, 409–418.Google Scholar
Zorzano, M-P, Mateo-Martí, E, Prieto-Ballesteros, O, Osuna, S and Renno, N (2009) Stability of liquid saline water on present day Mars. Geophysical Research Letters 36, L20201.Google Scholar
Zorzano, M-P, Martin-Torres, J, Mathanlal, T, Ramachandran, AV and Soria-Salinas, A (2017) 23rd ESA Symposium on European Rocket and Balloon Programmes. Visby, Sweden: ESA Proceedings.Google Scholar