Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T13:37:46.043Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Use of rotational angiography in congenital cardiac catheterisations to generate three-dimensional-printed models

Part of: Functionally Univentricular Heart Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) Advanced Imaging Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS) Aortic Coarctation Interventional Cardiology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2021

Michael D. Seckeler Open the ORCID record for Michael D. Seckeler [Opens in a new window] ,
Brian A. Boe ,
Brent J. Barber ,
Darren P. Berman  and
Aimee K. Armstrong
Michael D. Seckeler*
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Department of Pediatrics (Cardiology), Tucson, AZ, USA
Brian A. Boe
Affiliation:
The Heart Center, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
Brent J. Barber
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Department of Pediatrics (Cardiology), Tucson, AZ, USA
Darren P. Berman
Affiliation:
The Heart Center, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
Aimee K. Armstrong
Affiliation:
The Heart Center, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Dr M. Seckeler, MD, MSc, Department of Pediatrics (Cardiology), University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, PO Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA. Tel: +520 626 5585; Fax: +520 626 6571. E-mail: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background:

Three-dimensional printing is increasingly utilised for congenital heart defect procedural planning. CT or MR datasets are typically used for printing, but similar datasets can be obtained from three-dimensional rotational angiography. We sought to assess the feasibility and accuracy of printing three-dimensional models of CHD from rotational angiography datasets.

Methods:

Retrospective review of CHD catheterisations using rotational angiography was performed, and patient and procedural details were collected. Imaging data from rotational angiography were segmented, cleaned, and printed with polylactic acid on a Dremel® 3D Idea Builder (Dremel, Mount Prospect, IL, USA). Printing time and materials’ costs were captured. CT scans of printed models were compared objectively to the original virtual models. Two independent, non-interventional paediatric cardiologists provided subjective ratings of the quality and accuracy of the printed models.

Results:

Rotational angiography data from 15 catheterisations on vascular structures were printed. Median print time was 3.83 hours, and material costs were $2.84. The CT scans of the printed models highly matched with the original digital models (root mean square for Hausdorff distance 0.013 ± 0.003 mesh units). Independent reviewers correctly described 80 and 87% of the models (p = 0.334) and reported high quality and accuracy (5 versus 5, p = NS; κ = 0.615).

Conclusion:

Imaging data from rotational angiography can be converted into accurate three-dimensional-printed models of CHD. The cost of printing the models was negligible, but the print time was prohibitive for real-time use. As the speed of three-dimensional printing technology increases, novel future applications may allow for printing patient-specific devices based on rotational angiography datasets.

Keywords

Three-dimensional printingcongenital heart diseasecardiac catheterisationtetralogy of Fallot
Type
Original Article
Information
Cardiology in the Young , Volume 31 , Issue 9 , September 2021 , pp. 1407 - 1411
Check for updates
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Since three-dimensional printing technology was first described by Charles Hull in 1986,Reference Hull1 technological advances have led to increased use in the medical field, including for education,Reference Jones and Seckeler2,Reference White, Sedler, Jones and Seckeler3 procedural planning,Reference Frolich, Spallek and Brehmer4,Reference Giannopoulos, Steigner and George5 and device development.Reference Dzian, Živčák, Penciak and Hudák6 Typical datasets for three-dimensional model generation come from computed tomography or magnetic resonance scans that are segmented to highlight the regions of interest, converted to stereolithographic format, and printed. Three-dimensional rotational angiography is a newer imaging modality performed in the cardiac catheterisation laboratory and produces a three-dimensional dataset that can be used for the virtual reconstruction of complex structures. It was initially used in neurovascular interventionsReference Thron and Voigt7 and was first used in a congenital cardiac catheterisation in 2007.Reference Rigatelli, Zamboni and Cardaioli8 With improved image processing and the ability to overlay three-dimensional reconstructions onto standard fluoroscopic imaging, rotational angiography use has continued to increase for diagnosticReference Panzer, Taeymans and De Wolf9–Reference Aldoss, Fonseca and Truong15 and interventionalReference Fagan, Kay, Carroll and Neubauer16–Reference van der Stelt, Krings, Molenschot and Breur25 congenital cardiac catheterisation.

Rotational angiography imaging provides datasets similar to other advanced imaging modalities for the creation of highly detailed, patient-specific three-dimensional virtual models. In addition, rotational angiography may be more advantageous than multi-slice CT scans, as the imaging is focused on the area of interest, generating less radiation exposure.Reference Struffert, Hauer, Banckwitz, Köhler, Royalty and Doerfler26 There are few publications detailing the use of rotational angiography datasets of CHD to generate three-dimensional-printed models.Reference Poterucha, Foley and Taggart19,Reference Parimi, Buelter and Thanugundla27 The purpose of this study was to create three-dimensional-printed models from rotational angiography datasets of CHD and assess the quality (both objectively and subjectively) of the models produced.

Materials and methods

After approval from the Institutional Review Boards of the University of Arizona and Nationwide Children’s Hospital, congenital catheterisations that used rotational angiography from January, 2017 to March, 2018 were retrospectively identified. Catheterisations were performed in Toshiba and Philips laboratories. Rapid ventricular pacing, contrast concentration, and contrast volume were based on standard practice and operator preference. Cases were chosen to reflect various CHD anatomies. Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine data were segmented using a semi-automated process with Philips IntelliSpace Portal (Philips Medical Systems, The Netherlands), cleaned using Autodesk® Meshmixer™ (Autodesk, Inc., San Rafael, CA, USA), prepared for printing using Simplify3D® version 4.0.0 (Simplify3D Software, Cincinnati, OH, USA), and printed with polylactic acid on a Dremel® 3D Idea Builder (Dremel, Mount Prospect, IL, USA, list price $1299; Fig 1a–d). All segmentations, model generations, and printings were performed by a single user (MDS) who has personally generated over 250 three-dimensional-printed models of CHD. Data collected included patient demographics, diagnosis, and contrast concentration and volume used for the rotational angiography. Three-dimensional printing time and materials’ costs were also collected.

Figure 1. Generation of a three-dimensional-printed model from three-dimensional rotational angiography data. (a) Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine data are first segmented to define the anatomy of interest (Fontan circuit in cyan, trachea in green). (b) The model is cleaned (Fontan circuit in blue, trachea in green). (c) The model is prepared for printing. (d) Final three-dimensional-printed model (Fontan circuit in blue, trachea in white).

Printed three-dimensional models were objectively assessed using a method described for three-dimensional printing of livers.Reference Witowski, Wake and Grochowska28 The printed models were imaged using a Siemens Inveon uCT scanner (Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc., Malvern, PA, USA). A total of 360 projections were acquired in a full rotation, using low magnification with a 4×4 binning. The camera was set in rat mode with a transaxial field of view of 3072 px (81.02 mm), and axial scan length was set at 128 mm, which requires three bed positions and uses a 31.52% field of view overlap for reconstruction. Exposure settings were 80 kV, with 500 µA current and an acquisition time of 250 ms. Image reconstruction was done using a Feldkamp algorithm, a Shepp–Logan filter, slight noise reduction, and twofold downsampling. Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine images from the CT were segmented using Philips IntelliSpace Portal and were compared to the original digital models using MeshLab version 2016.12 (Visual Computing Laboratory, Pisa, Italy). Hausdorff distances were calculated with vertex samples, using at least 100,000 samples, and the root mean square of the difference was calculated for each model comparison.Reference Cignoni, Rocchini and Scopigno29 Distances were reported as “mesh units”, not absolute measures, and the closer the root mean square was to 0, the more similar the models.

For a subjective assessment of the printed models, two blinded, independent, non-interventional paediatric cardiologists provided descriptions of the anatomy and any interventions (e.g., hypoplastic left heart syndrome after Norwood reconstruction with a modified Blalock–Taussig–Thomas shunt) based on the three-dimensional-printed models. In addition, they provided a subjective rating (1–5) of quality and accuracy of the three-dimensional-printed models as compared to the original digital models.

Data were compared using Mann–Whitney U test, χ2, and κ for agreement, as appropriate. A p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Data from 15 rotational angiograms were three-dimensional printed. Patient characteristics and diagnoses are shown in Table 1. Details of image acquisition and three-dimensional printing are shown in Table 2. Because of the focal application of contrast to the structure(s) of interest, initial segmentation time was less than 10 minutes per model, which was half the typical time for segmentation of similar anatomy from CT or MR dataset (MDS, personal experience). The median time to print the three-dimensional models was 3.83 hours (IQR 3.35, 7.02 hours), with a material cost of $2.84 per model. Print time and material cost were affected by model size and complexity. All models were of vascular structures (aorta, main/branch pulmonary arteries, superior/total cavopulmonary connections, coronary artery fistula, superior caval vein). There was very high agreement between the original digital reconstructions and those generated from CT scans of the printed models (root mean square for Hausdorff distance 0.013 ± 0.003 mesh units). Model descriptions by the independent reviewers are shown in Table 3. They correctly described the anatomy and interventions for 80 and 87% of the models (p = 0.334) and rated the quality and accuracy of the models high with a substantial agreement (5 versus 5, p = NS; κ = 0.615). Two models were incorrectly described by both reviewers.

Table 1. Patient demographics and cardiac diagnoses. Data are shown as n (%) or median (interquartile range)

MAPCAs = major aortopulmonary collateral arteries; PA = pulmonary artery; RV-PA = right ventricle to pulmonary artery; SCPC = superior cavopulmonary connection; TCPC = total cavopulmonary connection

Table 2. Image acquisition details and costs and times for three-dimensional model printing. Data are shown as n (%) or median (interquartile range)

Table 3. Summary of anatomic descriptions of underlying cardiac defects and interventions along with descriptions provided by the independent reviewers. There were two models of complex, abnormal branch pulmonary arteries that were incorrectly identified by both reviewers. Of note, the full cardiac diagnoses are provided for completeness, but the majority of the three-dimensional-printed models did not include intracardiac anatomy, so the description of this was not expected of the reviewers

AVSD = atrioventricular septal defect; BTT = Blalock–Taussig–Thomas; DCRV = double chamber right ventricle; DORV = double outlet right ventricle; HLHS = hypoplastic left heart syndrome; MAPCAs = major aortopulmonary collateral arteries; PA = pulmonary artery; PAPVR = partial anomalous pulmonary venous return; PDA = patent ductus arteriosus; RV-PA = right ventricle to pulmonary artery; SCPC = superior cavopulmonary connection; SVC = superior caval vein; TCPC = total cavopulmonary connection; TGA = transposition of the great arteries; VSD = ventricular septal defect

Discussion

In this series, rotational angiography data from congenital cardiac catheterisations of a variety of defects and surgical palliations were successfully and accurately printed as three-dimensional models. While there are two small prior reports of this technique,Reference Poterucha, Foley and Taggart19,Reference Parimi, Buelter and Thanugundla27 we generated models from a wide variety of CHD anomalies and provided objective measures to assess the accuracy of the printed models. There are several potential advantages of using three-dimensional datasets from rotational angiography to generate three-dimensional-printed models.

A valuable clinical application of three-dimensional-printed models from rotational angiography is for surgical planning. The utility of three-dimensional-printed models from CT and MR datasets for planning the surgical approach for complex CHD has been well documented.Reference Batteux, Haidar and Bonnet30 Many patients with CHD undergo a pre-operative diagnostic cardiac catheterisation to obtain haemodynamic data. Utilisation of rotational angiography data for three-dimensional models minimises the need for additional procedures, radiation, and general anaesthetic exposure. Our findings show that the three-dimensional-printed models from rotational angiography datasets are high quality, accurate, and should be acceptable for surgical planning.

Another use for three-dimensional-printed models generated from rotational angiography is for educational purposes. Additional advanced imaging is not always obtained for patients who undergo cardiac catheterisations, but there is a value in understanding their complex anatomy. If rotational angiography datasets are being obtained as part of routine care, then these existing datasets can be used to generate libraries of CHD for trainees, such as has been done for interventional radiology, neuroradiology, and structural heart disease.Reference Giannopoulos, Steigner and George5,Reference Kerrien, Yureidini, Dequidt, Duriez, Anxionnat and Cotin31 Many interventionalists use the 2D angiography performed during procedures to educate patients and families, but recent studies have shown three-dimensional models to be more effective for family understanding in pre-procedure meetings for cardiac and neurosurgical procedures.Reference Guo, He and Duan32,Reference Boyer, Yell, Andrews and Seckeler33 The additional time needed to generate three-dimensional virtual models from rotational angiography for this purpose is minimal, and it is feasible to three-dimensional print a small model after the procedure and before hospital discharge. As three-dimensional printing technology becomes faster, it is conceivable that printed models of pre- and post-intervention anatomy could be generated during the catheterisation procedure. These models would provide families a better understanding of the indications and outcomes of an intervention.

Looking beyond the current limitations of our technology, there is a much more practical and exciting potential use of real-time three-dimensional printing. A major challenge for transcatheter interventions in infants and children with CHD is the need to modify existing equipment, such as stents, to fit their unique anatomy.Reference Sullivan, Liou and Takao34 The use of three-dimensional printing to create custom stents for a patient has been proposed.Reference Zablah and Morgan35 As three-dimensional printing of metals becomes faster, it is conceivable that a custom stent could be “designed” using a rotational angiography dataset and three-dimensional printed for implantation during the same catheterisation procedure. This would obviate the need for additional imaging and invasive procedures in this fragile population. The application of real-time three-dimensional printing is still futuristic, due to the high complexity and expense of three-dimensional printing metals, in addition to regulatory and safety challenges. Through continued research and development, however, this technology should be obtainable in the future.

While some are hesitant to adopt the use of rotational angiography due to the radiation exposure involved, this concern has not been borne out in studies. In fact, rotational angiography has been found to have a lower radiation dose than standard two-dimensional angiographyReference Haddad, Waller and Johnson36 and two-dimensional digital subtraction angiography,Reference Struffert, Hauer, Banckwitz, Köhler, Royalty and Doerfler26 and the ability to focus the imaging only on the specific anatomy of interest also allow a lower dose than multi-slice CT scans.Reference Struffert, Hauer, Banckwitz, Köhler, Royalty and Doerfler26 A complete understanding of fluoroscopy equipment and optimisation of the settings to minimise radiation exposure remains key. The combination of cardiac motion and the relatively slow acquisition time of rotational angiography, compared to multi-slice CT scans, limits the ability to visualise intracardiac structures with current rotational angiography technology. Currently, rotational angiography offers excellent visualisation of vascular structures. Since the majority of angiography for congenital cardiac interventions is for vascular structures (angioplasty, stenting, and vessel embolisation), this is of minimal concern. Further development of rotational angiography technology and techniques will lead to improved imaging of intracardiac structures.

This study is limited by the small numbers and retrospective design. In addition, depending on the institutional experience and available equipment, the model creation and three-dimensional printing times and costs may vary. While there were some limitations in the ability of the reviewers to describe the exact underlying CHD for several of the models, this was not an expected goal of the study, particularly in light of the fact that only part of the anatomy was visualised with the rotational angiography and physically printed for most of the patients. Regardless of these limitations, the data presented provide insight into an intriguing potential future application to further integrate three-dimensional printing into clinical is for patients with CHD.

This proof of concept study has shown that Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine data from standard rotational angiography can be successfully converted into three-dimensional-printed models for a variety of CHD with excellent accuracy for defining anatomy. The cost of printing the models was negligible, but the time to print is still too long to allow for real-time use of the models. As the speed of three-dimensional printing technology increases, a novel future application of this technique could allow for the printing of patient-specific stents and devices in the catheterisation lab based on rotational angiography datasets.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge and thank Brenda Baggett for her help performing the CT scans of the three-dimensional-printed models. Dr S. received a grant from the Sarver Heart Center Congenital Heart Disease Education Grant and the University of Arizona College of Medicine Vernon, and Virginia Furrow Award for Medical Education Research to establish a three-dimensional printing programme for congenital heart disease at the University of Arizona, but not to directly support the current study.

Financial support

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflicts of interest

None.

Ethical standards

The authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national guidelines on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008, and has been approved by the institutional committees of the University of Arizona and Nationwide Children’s Hospital.

Supplementary material

To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.1017/S1047951121000287.

Footnotes

The rotational angiograms were performed at the Nationwide Children’s Hospital and Banner University Medical Center – Tucson/University of Arizona. The three-dimensional model generation and printing were performed at the Banner University Medical Center – Tucson/University of Arizona.

References

Hull, CWA. Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography. UVP Inc., San Gabriel, CA, United States, 1986.Google Scholar
Jones, TW, Seckeler, MD. Use of 3D models of vascular rings and slings to improve resident education. Congenit Heart Dis 2017; 12: 578–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, SC, Sedler, J, Jones, TW, Seckeler, M. Utility of three-dimensional models in resident education on simple and complex intracardiac congenital heart defects. Congenit Heart Dis 2018; 13: 1045–1049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frolich, AM, Spallek, J, Brehmer, L, et al. 3D Printing of intracranial aneurysms using fused deposition modeling offers highly accurate replications. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2016; 37: 120–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giannopoulos, AA, Steigner, ML, George, E, et al. Cardiothoracic applications of 3-dimensional Printing. J Thorac Imaging 2016; 31: 253–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dzian, A, Živčák, J, Penciak, R, Hudák, R. Implantation of a 3D-printed titanium sternum in a patient with a sternal tumor. World J Surg Oncol 2018; 16: 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thron, A, Voigt, K. Rotational cerebral angiography: procedure and value. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1983; 4: 289–291.Google ScholarPubMed
Rigatelli, G, Zamboni, A, Cardaioli, P. Three-dimensional rotational digital angiography in a complicated case of patent ductus arteriosus transcatheter closure. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2007; 70: 900–903.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panzer, J, Taeymans, Y, De Wolf, D. Three-dimensional rotational angiography of a patient with pulmonary atresia intact septum and coronary fistulas. Pediatr Cardiol 2008; 29: 686–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glatz, AC, Zhu, X, Gillespie, MJ, Hanna, BD, Rome, JJ. Use of angiographic CT imaging in the cardiac catheterization laboratory for congenital heart disease. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2010; 3: 1149–1157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berman, DP, Khan, DM, Gutierrez, Y, Zahn, EM. The use of three-dimensional rotational angiography to assess the pulmonary circulation following cavo-pulmonary connection in patients with single ventricle. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2012; 80: 922–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glockler, M, Koch, A, Halbfass, J, et al. Assessment of cavopulmonary connections by advanced imaging: value of flat-detector computed tomography. Cardiol Young 2013; 23: 18–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Truong, UT, Fagan, TE, Deterding, R, Ing, RJ, Fonseca, BM. Use of rotational angiography in assessing relationship of the airway to vasculature during cardiac catheterization. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2015; 86: 1068–1077.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borik, S, Volodina, S, Chaturvedi, R, Lee, KJ, Benson, LN. Three-dimensional rotational angiography in the assessment of vascular and airway compression in children after a cavopulmonary anastomosis. Pediatr Cardiol 2015; 36: 1083–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aldoss, O, Fonseca, BM, Truong, UT, et al. Diagnostic utility of three-dimensional rotational angiography in congenital cardiac catheterization. Pediatr Cardiol 2016; 37: 1211–1221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fagan, T, Kay, J, Carroll, J, Neubauer, A. 3-D guidance of complex pulmonary artery stent placement using reconstructed rotational angiography with live overlay. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2012; 79: 414–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glockler, M, Halbfabeta, J, Koch, A, Achenbach, S, Dittrich, S. Multimodality 3D-roadmap for cardiovascular interventions in congenital heart disease--a single-center, retrospective analysis of 78 cases. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2013; 82: 436–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J, Bellotti, C, Golden, A. Three-dimensional rotational angiography during percutaneous device closure of Fontan fenestration. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg 2013; 4: 324–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poterucha, JT, Foley, TA, Taggart, NW. Percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation in a native outflow tract: 3-dimensional DynaCT rotational angiographic reconstruction and 3-dimensional printed model. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2014; 7: e151–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, JH, Fetterly, KA, Taggart, NW. Three-dimensional rotational angiography-guided stent placement for treatment of acquired supravalvar aortic stenosis. Circulation 2015; 132: 455–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stenger, A, Dittrich, S, Glockler, M. Three-dimensional rotational angiography in the pediatric cath lab: optimizing aortic interventions. Pediatr Cardiol 2016; 37: 528–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starmans, NL, Krings, GJ, Molenschot, MM, van der Stelt, F, Breur, JM. Three-dimensional rotational angiography in children with an aortic coarctation. Neth Heart J 2016; 24: 666–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goreczny, S, Morgan, GJ, Dryzek, P, Moll, JA, Moszura, T. Initial experience with live three-dimensional image overlay for ductal stenting in hypoplastic left heart syndrome. EuroIntervention 2016; 12: 1527–1533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pockett, CR, Moore, JW, El-Said, HG. Three dimensional rotational angiography for assessment of coronary arteries during melody valve implantation: introducing a technique that may improve outcomes. Neth Heart J 2017; 25: 82–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Stelt, F, Krings, GJ, Molenschot, MC, Breur, JM. Additional value of three-dimensional rotational angiography in the diagnostic evaluation and percutaneous treatment of children with univentricular hearts. EuroIntervention 2018; 14: 637–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Struffert, T, Hauer, M, Banckwitz, R, Köhler, C, Royalty, K, Doerfler, A. Effective dose to patient measurements in flat-detector and multislice computed tomography: a comparison of applications in neuroradiology. Eur Radiol 2014; 24: 1257–1265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parimi, M, Buelter, J, Thanugundla, V, et al. Feasibility and validity of printing 3D heart models from rotational angiography. Pediatr Cardiol 2018; 39: 653–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witowski, J, Wake, N, Grochowska, A, et al. Investigating accuracy of 3D printed liver models with computed tomography. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019; 9: 43–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cignoni, P, Rocchini, C, Scopigno, R. Metro: measuring error on simplified surfaces. Comput Graph Forum 1998; 17: 167–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batteux, C, Haidar, MA, Bonnet, D. 3D-printed models for surgical planning in complex congenital heart diseases: a systematic review. Front Pediatr 2019; 7: 23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerrien, E, Yureidini, A, Dequidt, J, Duriez, C, Anxionnat, R, Cotin, S. Blood vessel modeling for interactive simulation of interventional neuroradiology procedures. Med Image Anal 2017; 35: 685–698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guo, XY, He, ZQ, Duan, H, et al. The utility of 3-dimensional-printed models for skull base meningioma surgery. Ann Transl Med 2020; 8: 370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyer, PJ, Yell, JA, Andrews, JG, Seckeler, MD. Anxiety reduction after pre-procedure meetings in patients with CHD. Cardiol Young 2020; 30: 997–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, PM, Liou, A, Takao, C, et al. Tailoring stents to fit the anatomy of unique vascular stenoses in congenital heart disease. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2017; 90: 963–971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zablah, JE, Morgan, GJ. Pulmonary artery stenting. Interv Cardiol Clin 2019; 8: 33–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Haddad, L, Waller, BR, Johnson, J, et al. Radiation protocol for three-dimensional rotational angiography to limit procedural radiation exposure in the pediatric cardiac catheterization lab. Congenit Heart Dis 2016; 11: 637–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Figure 1. Generation of a three-dimensional-printed model from three-dimensional rotational angiography data. (a) Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine data are first segmented to define the anatomy of interest (Fontan circuit in cyan, trachea in green). (b) The model is cleaned (Fontan circuit in blue, trachea in green). (c) The model is prepared for printing. (d) Final three-dimensional-printed model (Fontan circuit in blue, trachea in white).

Figure 1

Table 1. Patient demographics and cardiac diagnoses. Data are shown as n (%) or median (interquartile range)

Figure 2

Table 2. Image acquisition details and costs and times for three-dimensional model printing. Data are shown as n (%) or median (interquartile range)

Figure 3

Table 3. Summary of anatomic descriptions of underlying cardiac defects and interventions along with descriptions provided by the independent reviewers. There were two models of complex, abnormal branch pulmonary arteries that were incorrectly identified by both reviewers. Of note, the full cardiac diagnoses are provided for completeness, but the majority of the three-dimensional-printed models did not include intracardiac anatomy, so the description of this was not expected of the reviewers