Insects as traditional food

It is difficult to estimate the percentage of people eating insects. National statistics do not take these food items into consideration. Therefore, the information has to be extracted from articles which often have an ethno-biological focus (see, for examples, chapter 2 of Van Huis, Itterbeeck⁽ Reference Van Huis, Van Itterbeeck and Klunder ^{33 )}). The insects are mainly harvested from nature. Herbivorous insect species depend on food plants, and therefore their collection depends on the season. However, in every season there are certain edible insect species available which makes year-round harvesting possible. Also aquatic insect species can often be collected throughout the year. Edible insects often complement other protein sources which are not available during a certain period of the year. For example, people from Madagascar supplement their protein intake with a number of insect species during the lean season (period between exhaustion of rice reserves and rice harvest) when food prices are high⁽ Reference Randrianandrasana and Berenbaum ^{34 )}. Often insects provide nutrients which are not available in staple food. Bukkens⁽ Reference Bukkens ^{35 )} gives a few examples. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, caterpillars provide lysine, nutritionally complementing lysine-poor cereals. In Papua New Guinea, palm weevil larvae are consumed in combination with staples such as sago, sweet potato, yam and taro. The amino acid (AA) composition of the palm weevil larvae (lysine and leucine) complements that of the tubers which are limited in those AA. At the same time, the tubers provide tryptophan and aromatic AA which are limited in palm weevil larvae.

The harvesting and marketing of edible insects can improve livelihoods, in particular of women. Examples are: harvesting the Mopane caterpillar Imbrasia belina (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) in Southern Africa is an 85 million US$ business, mainly carried out by women⁽ Reference Ghazoul ^{36 ,} Reference Styles ^{37 )}; the marketing of the Edible stinkbug Encosternum delegorguei (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae) in sub-Saharan African countries mainly benefits women in impoverished rural communities⁽ Reference Dzerefos and Witkowski ^{38 )}; edible pupae of a saturniid wild silkworm, is commercially reared for sericulture in Madagascar, contribute to poverty alleviation⁽ Reference Randrianandrasana and Berenbaum ^{34 )}.

The larvae of the African palm weevil Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are popular food throughout the humid tropics. In the Congo Basin and Cameroon, they are consumed by the majority of the inhabitants⁽ Reference Muafor, Gnetegha and Gall ^{39 )}. Their exploitation and trade by forest-dependent communities is an important source of income, often more than 20 % of all economic activities (agriculture, fishing, hunting, etc.). For professional collectors an average monthly income of 180–600 US$ is generated, representing 30–75 % of their household income.

However, future harvests may be threatened by overexploitation, unsustainable harvesting methods, increased commercialisation, land transformation and pesticide use⁽ Reference Payne ^{40 ,} Reference Ramos-Elorduy ^{41 )}. Although permits are required to harvest non-timber forest products such as the Mopane caterpillar in national parks, a study in Zimbabwe showed that the rules to enforce them are either weak or non-existent⁽ Reference Mufandaedza, Moyo and Makoni ^{42 )}. Findings of this study suggest the need for adaptive local management systems that enhance sustainable use of the resource and at the same time regulate the harvesting and the market structure of non-timber forest products. Local populations can also be enhanced by semi-domestication measures, for example for caterpillars⁽ Reference Van Itterbeeck and Van Huis ^{43 )}: manipulating host tree distribution and abundance, shifting cultivation, fire regimes, host tree preservation and manually introducing caterpillars to a designated area. Another possibility is the rearing of edible insect species which will be discussed later.

Edible insects in the Western world

Already in 1885, a booklet appeared by an English entomologist Why not eat insects ⁽ Reference Holt ^{44 )}. Bodenheimer⁽ Reference Bodenheimer ^{1 )} reviewed insect eating from all over the world in his book Insects as human food; a chapter of the ecology of man. Gene DeFoliart published The Food Insects Newsletter from 1988 to 2000⁽ Reference DeFoliart, Dunkel and Gracer ^{45 )}. Worldwide interest was generated with the publication of the Food and Agricultural Organization book Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security which was downloaded more than seven million times and has been translated in Korean, French and Italian⁽ Reference Van Huis, Van Itterbeeck and Klunder ^{33 )}. Another boost was the conference ‘Insect to feed the world’ jointly organised by the Food and Agriculture Organisation and Wageningen University in the Netherlands which attracted 450 participants from forty-five countries⁽ Reference Van Huis and Vantomme ^{46 )}. In January 2015, a scientific journal Insects as Food and Feed was started (http://www.wageningenacademic.com/loi/jiff).

In the USA, the interest of the private sector has been very much in the development of cricket-based products: protein bars, flour and cookies. In Europe, besides crickets, the Yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor, the Lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and the Migratory locust Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) are marketed. In 2015, one supermarket chain with more than 500 outlets in the Netherlands sells burger, schnitzels and nuggets (produced by a Belgian company) which contain about 16 % of Lesser mealworm flour. In the Netherlands, the insects can also be bought freeze-dried, either in supermarkets or they can be web-ordered. A number of cookbooks have been produced, some with recipes from insects from all over the world⁽ Reference Ramos-Elorduy ^{47 )} and some with insects that are locally available⁽ Reference Van Huis, Gurp and Dicke ^{48 )}. In the Netherlands, insect rearing companies, producing insects as pet or fish food, have set up special producing lines for insects for human consumption, in which they follow strict hygiene measures. They self-imposed protocols, such as track and tracing systems in order to guarantee food safety.

Several European countries have declared that certain insects are allowed to be produced and consumed, e.g. Belgium, Switzerland and The Netherlands. The Swiss federal food safety and veterinary office announced in 2015 that they back the sale of crickets, grasshoppers and mealworms as part of a planned revision of Switzerland's law governing foodstuff^{( 49 )}. In September 2014 in Belgium, the Scientific Committee of the Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain and validated by the Board of the Superior Health Council concluded: ‘it seems highly unlikely that insects that were farmed under controlled, hygienic circumstances, would get infected with viral or parasitic pathogens from the farming environment or the nutrient medium. Since it cannot be excluded that pathogenic bacteria (and spores) from the production environment may infect the insects and its consumers, a heating step (minimally blanching, cooking, frying or stir frying) is indispensable before the products are put on to market or consumed’ ^{( 50 )}. The initiatives by private enterprise are still small scale. However, with the increased interest the sector of insects as food is emerging. The sector of insect as feed will be shortly discussed.

Insects as feed

Insects can also be used as feedstock for pets, livestock and fish. The candidate insect species are the Black soldier fly Hermetia illuscens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), the Common housefly Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) and to a lesser extent mealworms, locusts/grasshoppers/crickets and silkworms. The advantage of the fly species and the mealworms is that they can be reared on organic side streams, interesting because one-third of the produce in the food and agriculture industry is wasted^{( 51 )}. Low value organic products can in this way be transformed into high value protein products. The Black soldier fly can even be reared on manure but then food safety issues need to be considered. A number of companies in the world are geared up to produce tons of insect meal daily. The main challenge is the legislation. In October 2015, the European Food Safety Authority published a report about risks of insects as food and feed (http://tinyurl.com/p5dym9u). In the European Union (EU), insects as feedstock for pigs and poultry is not yet allowed, but they are used as aquafeed since 2013. Therefore, we will give this some more attention.

For the first time in history, more fish for human consumption have originated from farms than from wild capture, having reached almost parity in 2012 according to the latest global report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN^{( 52 )}. The production of fish from 2010 to 2030 is expected to grow by 24 % with 36 tonnes and this growth is entirely due to aquaculture⁽ Reference Msangi, Kobayashi and Batka ^{53 )}. The rapid growth of aquaculture means that the sector requires growing volumes of feed, which traditionally has been fishmeal and fish oil, by-catch from capture fisheries. However, capture fisheries are overexploited: 29 % of global fish stocks in 2011^{( 52 )}. This makes world prices of fishmeal higher than ever and poses the need for other protein sources, such as vegetable-based feeds, primarily soya-based. However, these vegetable products have limitations due to unbalanced AA profiles, high-fibre content, anti-nutritional factors and competition with use for human consumption⁽ Reference Lock, Arsiwalla and Waagbø ^{54 ,} Reference Sánchez-Muros, de Haro and Sanz ^{55 )}. Tests conducted with Atlantic salmon showed that replacement of fishmeal with meal of the Black soldier fly is possible without adverse effects on the net growth of the fish, histology, odour, flavour/taste and texture⁽ Reference Lock, Arsiwalla and Waagbø ^{54 )}.

Other livestock and fish species that have shown positive results by feeding them meal of different insect species such as Black soldier fly, Domesticated house fly, the Oriental latrine fly Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Yellow mealworm, the Domesticated silkworm Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) and the Variegated grasshopper Zonocerus variegatus (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae) are: broiler chickens⁽ Reference Oluokun ^{56 ,} Reference Awoniyi, Aletor and Aina ^{57 )}; tilapia⁽ Reference Sánchez-Muros, de Haro and Sanz ^{55 ,} Reference Ogunjil, Kloas and Wirth ^{58 ,} Reference Sing, Kamarudin and Wilson ^{59 )}, African giant snail (Achatina spp.)⁽ Reference Mbunwen, Onyimonyi and Nwoga ^{60 )}, African catfish Clarias gariepinus ⁽ Reference Idowu, Amusan and Oyediran ^{61 –} Reference Ng, Liew and Ang ^{67 )}; and Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss ⁽ Reference St-Hilaire, Sheppard and Tomberlin ^{68 ,} Reference Sealey, Gaylord and Barrows ^{69 )}.

Insect farming

Most insects in tropical countries are collected from nature, but efforts are made to farm the insects. The supply of the larvae of the African palm weevil in Cameroon from the wild is irregular and involves the destruction of raffia ecosystems⁽ Reference Muafor, Gnetegha and Gall ^{39 )}. Therefore, farming systems were developed involving the introduction of collected adult palm weevils in boxes containing fresh raffia tissues. The advantages of this system over wild harvesting are: higher production, less than a quarter of the raffia tissue needed, and production throughout the year. Also in Thailand⁽ Reference Hanboonsong, Jamjanya and Durst ^{70 )} and the Democratic Republic of Congo⁽ Reference Monzenga Lokela ^{71 )} farming systems for this insect are being developed.

In Thailand, 20 000 domestic cricket farms produce an average of 7500 metric tonnes of insects annually for home consumption and for the market⁽ Reference Hanboonsong, Jamjanya and Durst ^{70 )}. In Thailand, insect farming is expanding rapidly and offers significant income and livelihood opportunities for tens of thousands of Thai people engaged in insect farming, processing, transport and marketing⁽ Reference Durst and Hanboonsong ^{72 )}.

To improve the health status of people in a province of Cambodia, the cricket Teleogryllus testaceus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is mass produced as a sustainable, cost-effective and high-quality alternative source of protein to traditional livestock⁽ Reference Caparros Megido, Alabi and Nieus ^{73 )}. For that reason, the diet of the crickets should be based on unused wild resources. Young cassava leaves and brown rice (with or without bananas) are used to produce crickets with a high total biomass, while diets made of taro aerial parts or only young cassava leaves could be used to produce crickets with high protein level.

The Yellow mealworms in Mexico were produced on wastes of vegetables and fruits⁽ Reference Ramos-Elorduy, Gonzalez and Hernandez ^{74 )}. Van Broekhoven, Oonincx⁽ Reference Van Broekhoven, Oonincx and Van Huis ^{75 )} studied the effect of diets composed of organic by-products originating from beer brewing, bread/cookie baking, potato processing and bioethanol production on three edible mealworm species: the Yellow mealworm, the Giant mealworm Zophobas atratus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and the Lesser mealworm. Larval protein content was stable on diets that differed 2–3-fold in protein content, whereas dietary fat did have an effect on larval fat content and fatty acid profile.

When House crickets Acheta domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and broiler chickens were fed grain-based diets at a scale of economic relevance, protein conversion efficiencies were similar⁽ Reference Lundy and Parrella ^{76 )}. Whether rearing crickets for human consumption will result in a more sustainable supply of protein depends, in large part, on what the crickets are fed. Very low-quality organic side-streams may not support adequate growth and survival of cricket populations. Species should be identified and processes designed that capture protein from scaleable, low value organic side-streams, which are not presently consumed by conventional livestock.

Nutrition

It is difficult to generalise the nutritional value of insects, because it varies with species, gender, developmental stage, diet and the environment (temperature, humidity and photoperiod) and even with the analytical methods used⁽ Reference Finke and Oonincx ^{77 )}. Many species are rich in protein and fat, essential AA and fatty acids as well as vitamins and minerals⁽ Reference Bukkens ^{35 ,} Reference Rumpold and Schlüter ^{78 )}. They will be reviewed briefly.

Processing and marketing

Processing methods can have an effect on the nutritional value of edible insects. For example, in Kenya, toasting and solar drying reduced protein digestibility and niacin content of the grasshopper Ruspolia differens (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) and the riboflavin and retinol content of winged termites of the species Macrotermes subhylanus ⁽ Reference Kinyuru, Kenji and Njoroge ^{91 )}.

In Mexico, tortillas supplemented with Yellow mealworm powder had excellent consumer acceptance⁽ Reference Aguilar-Miranda, Lopez and Escamilla-Santana ^{92 )}. The powder contained 58 % protein (rich in essential AA such as phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan) and had a fatty acid composition of 20 % oleic acid and nine linoleic acids (determined by GC–MS).

In Korea, muffins prepared with different concentrations (up to 8 %) of Yellow mealworm powder in basic flour had acceptable sensory properties, such as flavour and taste, while total polyphenol content and anti-oxidative activity increased with the concentration of the powder⁽ Reference Hwang and Choi ^{93 )}.

Food safety and legislation

Food safety is of special importance when dealing with new food sources. In the context of edible insects, there are four ways through which food safety risks can arise, i.e. (1) the insect itself could be toxic; (2) the insect could have acquired toxic substances or human pathogens from its environment during its life cycle; (3) the insect could become spoiled after harvest; (4) consumers could experience an allergic reaction to the insect.

Some toxic insect species are eaten. In Southern Africa, the edible stinkbug is consumed⁽ Reference Dzerefos, Witkowski and Toms ^{94 )}. The insect has a defence chemical that stains the skin and affects vision. Yet, protective gear is not worn. This necessitates nocturnal harvesting when the insect is immobilised by cold. The local population uses preparation methods to remove the defence chemical, making the insect palatable. Another toxic species is the Variegated grasshopper, called in French ‘criquet puant’ (stinking locust), which is eaten in West Africa⁽ Reference Sani, Haruna and Abdulhamid ^{95 )}. When molested, they secrete a liquid of which the odour is repulsive to man⁽ Reference Idowu and Idowu ^{96 )}. The Mofu in Northern Cameroon call the insect in their local language the ‘poison locust’⁽ Reference Seignobos, Deguine and Aberlenc ^{97 )}.

Acquisition by edible insects of toxic substances or human pathogens is very well possible and that is the reason that insects should be produced hygienically. For example, spore-forming bacteria can be introduced through soil contact and the Mopane caterpillar is often sun-dried on the soil. Therefore for this caterpillar, Mujuru et al.⁽ Reference Mujuru, Kwiri and Clarice Nyambi ^{98 )} stressed good harvesting and manufacturing practices to prevent contamination. To prevent physical, chemical and biological contamination during the food production process, the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points system is a widely used approach⁽ Reference Gurnari ^{99 )}, and should be adopted by commercial edible insect producers and companies developing insect-based food products.

Klunder et al.⁽ Reference Klunder, Wolkers-Rooijackers and Korpela ^{100 )} evaluated the microbiological content of fresh, processed and stored Yellow mealworm larvae and House crickets⁽ Reference Klunder, Wolkers-Rooijackers and Korpela ^{100 )}. A short heating step eliminated Enterobacteriaceae. Preservation techniques other than the use of a refrigerator are drying or acidifying. Lactic fermentation of composite flour/water mixtures containing 10 or 20 % powdered roasted mealworm larvae resulted in successful acidification and was demonstrated effective in safeguarding shelf-life.

Some people have an allergy towards either house dust mites and/or crustaceans, and the question is whether they would have the same allergic reactions towards insects, another order of the arthropod phylum. Crustaceans, long considered to be taxonomically widely separated from insects, are actually closer⁽ Reference Pennisi ^{101 )}. Cross-reactivity does seem to occur. The allergen arginine kinase was found to be responsible for cross-reactivity between the prawn Macrobrachium spp. and the field cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)⁽ Reference Srinroch, Srisomsap and Chokchaichamnankit ^{102 )}. Verhoeckx et al.⁽ Reference Verhoeckx, Van Broekhoven and den Hartog-Jager ^{103 )} concluded that there is a realistic possibility that patients allergic to house dust mites will react to food containing Yellow mealworm protein. The effect of thermal processing (frying) can alter the allergenicity of edible insects. This was investigated with sera allergic to shrimp using the Bombay locust Patanga succincta (Orthoptera: Acrididae), a major agricultural pest in Thailand, but also popular food⁽ Reference Phiriyangkul, Srinroch and Srisomsap ^{104 )}. Proteins identified as locust allergens in raw and fried locusts differed except for hexamerin being present in both: enolase and arginine kinase in raw locusts and pyruvate kinase, enolase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in fried locusts. Food allergic reaction to other insect species, such as grasshoppers and locusts, have been reported⁽ Reference Pener ^{105 )}.

The legislation concerning edible insects has been reviewed in the EU⁽ Reference Van der Spiegel, Noordam and Van der Fels-Klerx ^{29 )}. Insects are already sold as food in several EU countries although when not consumed ‘in a significant degree’ before 15 May 1997, they may be considered novel food. The Novel Food Regulation does not seem to apply to whole insects as the definition states ‘food ingredients isolated from animals’⁽ Reference Belluco, Losasso and Maggioletti ^{106 )}. The existing legislation was not conducive; private enterprises had little incentive to invest in development and production⁽ Reference Stamer ^{107 )}. However, since 25 November 2015, insects have been declared novel food and are subject to a simpler, clearer and more efficient authorisation procedure centralised at EU level (EU Regulation 2015/2283).

In the USA, edible insects fall under the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act⁽ Reference Ramaswamy ^{108 )}. Insects are considered food if that is the intended use (Sec. 201f). Food insects must be clean and wholesome (i.e. free from filth, pathogens, toxins), must have been produced, packaged, stored and transported under sanitary conditions, and must be properly labelled (Sec. 403). The label should include the scientific name of the insect. Insects must be raised specifically for human food following current Good Manufacturing Practices.

Issues that need to be taken into account are: clean rearing substrate (free of mycotoxins, pesticides or heavy metals); thermal or another treatment before consumption; mention on label expiry date and a warning that people allergic to crustaceans could react similarly to consuming insects; remove wings and legs (e.g. locusts); buy only insects from insect rearing companies that have set up special production lines for human consumption.

Consumer attitudes

In the Western world, insects have never been on the menu, and there is a strong rejection of insects as human food. Even in the tropics where insects are traditionally eaten, this is not a general practice and in urban areas the same aversion may exist. With increasing affluence, Western lifestyles and eating patterns are often copied and insects as food are not part of it. Also the biased notion that the eating of insects is a ‘peculiar habit of primitive man⁽ Reference Bodenheimer ^{1 )}, or starvation food⁽ Reference Yen ^{22 )}, will not help in its popularisation. The practice may diminish in less developed countries with increasing urbanisation, which went from 18 % in 1950 to about 50 % now and 64 % in 2050⁽ Reference Mcgranahan and Satterthwaite ^{109 )}. The continuation of the practice means that a marketing strategy should be in place to bring it to city markets.

The disgusting reaction in the Western world appears to be entirely acquired, arising in the period between the age of about 2 and 5 years. It is not primarily based on the sensory properties of potential foods, but rather on knowledge of the nature or history of a potential food. Interestingly, disgust has been identified as the main reason for persons totally rejecting insects as food⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )}. It has been proposed to harness disgust as a positive feature of insects, what Rozin et al.⁽ Reference Rozin, Guillot and Fincher ^{111 )} called benign masochism.

Are people willing to consider eating some form of insect food? The majority of two non-consuming groups from a completely different cultural background, USA (72 %) and India (74 %), were willing to do so⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )}. Gender seems to have an effect; men, both in Belgium⁽ Reference Verbeke ^{112 )} and the USA⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )} are more likely to adopt insects as a substitute for meat. Familiarity and experience with the food is also important for its acceptance. In Thailand, people are culturally exposed to edible insects which are considered in terms of taste and familiarity⁽ Reference Tan, Fischer and Tinchan ^{113 )}. However, Thai participants were strongly repulsed by mealworms, due to the association with larvae that they often see in decaying matter. This association was absent amongst the Dutch participants who were more familiar with mealworms as food.

A number of strategies are proposed to facilitate insect consumption:

1. 1. Giving people a taste experience, the so-called ‘bug banquets’ ⁽ Reference Looy, Dunkel and Wood ^{17 )}. Consumers in Australia and The Netherlands, who had eaten insects before, had a more positive attitude towards entomophagy than the people who had not⁽ Reference Lensvelt and Steenbekkers ^{114 )}.

2. 2. Providing information about the benefits of edible insects. In India and the USA, the most common perceived benefits of edible insects were related to nutrition and environmental sustainability⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )}. Benefit perception is derived from heuristic information processing and personal experience⁽ Reference Fischer and Frewer ^{115 )}.

3. 3. Processing insects into familiar products. In Kenya, termites and lake flies were baked, boiled and steam cooked under pressure and processed into crackers, muffins, sausages and meat loaf⁽ Reference Ayieko, Oriamo and Nyambuga ^{116 )}. Consumers, familiar with edible insects accepted these processed insects readily and it facilitated commercialisation. It has also been suggested that gradually increasing concentrations of insects in flour might be effective⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )}. This has been called the bottom-up approach, contrary to the top-down approach in which expensive restaurants have insects on the menu (see next point).

4. 4. Use role models. For example in The Insect Cookbook, interviews were conducted with the former secretary general of the United Nations Kofi Annan as well as with the chef cook of one of the best restaurants (Noma, Kopenhagen, Denmark) in the world⁽ Reference Van Huis, Gurp and Dicke ^{48 )}. This restaurant and the D.O.M. restaurant in Saõ Paulo, Brazil, where insects are served, have both been declared in 2015 among the ten best in the world (http://www.eater.com/2015/6/1/8699487/the-worlds-50-best-new-restaurants-2015).

5. 5. Indicating the systematic proximity in animal classification between insects and crustaceans. This could facilitate the integration of entomophagy in our feeding habits and behaviours⁽ Reference Caparros Megido, Sablon and Geuens ^{117 )}. Insects and crustaceans are more closely related than was generally thought⁽ Reference Pennisi ^{101 )}.

6. 6. Providing information about food safety. In the USA, half of the respondents perceived microbes and disease as a risk of eating insects⁽ Reference Ruby, Rozin and Chan ^{110 )}. Conversely, the majority of the respondents in Australia and the Netherlands indicated that there were no risks associated with eating insects. Information was seen as trustworthy when provided by scientific researchers, persons familiar with using the product, the government and well-known relatives, but not when promoted by food producers or famous persons⁽ Reference Lensvelt and Steenbekkers ^{114 )}. Risk perception is likely to be derived from deliberative information processing⁽ Reference Fischer and Frewer ^{115 )}.

7. 7. Gastronomy. Deroy et al.⁽ Reference Deroy, Reade and Spence ^{118 )} argued that rational arguments using environmental and nutritional benefits will not be enough to change insect-related food behaviours. Acceptability should be based on food perception: making it delicious.

8. 8. Availability. Edible insects, of which the quality and food safety is guaranteed, should be available. Besides the price should be affordable.

Way forward