1 Mantle Hood, “Music the Unknown,” in Frank Harrison, Mantle Hood, and Claude Palisca, Musicology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963), p. 264.Google Scholar

2 Ibid., p. 286.Google Scholar

3 See, for example, A. Radcliffe-Brown, The Andaman Islanders, 2d ed. (Cambridge, 1933), chapter 5; E. E. Evans-Pritchard, “The Dance,” Africa, I (1928), 446–461; Murray Groves, “Dancing in Poreporena,” Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute, LXXXIV (1954), 75–90; Clyde Mitchell, The Kalela Dance, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper no. 27 (Manchester, 1956); Alphons Silbermann, The Sociology of Music, tr. Corbet Stewart (London, 1963); Alan P. Merriam, The Anthropology of Music (Evanston, Ill., 1964).Google Scholar

4 See, for example, Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New York, 1941); Hugo Leichtentritt, Music, History and Ideas (Cambridge, Mass., 1946); Wilfrid Mellers, Music and Society, 2d ed. (London, 1950).Google Scholar

5 Willard Rhodes, “Music as an Agent of Political Expression,” Arts, Human Behavior and Africa, African Studies Bulletin, V, no. 2 (1962), 14–22.Google Scholar

6 Helmholtz and Hindemith are among those who maintain that consonance and dissonance are related to acoustical properties of sound. Victor Zuckerhandl, in his Sound and Symbol: Music and the External World (Princeton, N.J., 1956), p. 364, contends that the aim of the artist is to uncover the “truth” that exists in the world around him and that “tonal systems are in the realm of the audible; they are not inventions.” He ignores the fact that the artist is the product of a cultural system, with its own conceptualization of nature, so that the world around him is essentially cultural and not material.Google Scholar

7 This was first stressed by Alexander John Ellis, “the father of ethnomusicology,” in his article, “On the Musical Scale of Various Nations,” Journal of the Society of Arts, XXXIII (1885), 526; but it is all too often forgotten even by authorities such as Curt Sachs, who have tended to assume that there is an evolution of musical styles per se and that the same intervals may be compared as intervals, out of context.Google Scholar

8 N. Cazden, “Musical Consonance and Dissonance: A Cultural Criterion,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, IV (1945), 3–11.Google Scholar

9 Italics in original. Igor Stravinsky, Chronicles of My Life (London, 1936), p. 83.Google Scholar

10 John Blacking, Venda Children's Songs: A Study in Ethnomusicological Analysis (Johannesburg, 1967), pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

11 F. Bonavia, ed., Musicians on Music (London, 1956), p. 204.Google Scholar

12 John Wilson, ed., The Faith of an Artist (London, 1963), p. 135.Google Scholar

13 Beryl de Zoete and Walter Spies, Dance and Drama in Bali (London, 1938); Beryl de Zoete, The Other Mind: A Study of Dance in South India (London, 1953), pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

14 Such states are discussed in William James's The Varieties of Religious Experience and are regarded as the basic datum of religion by Rudolph Otto in The Idea of the Holy. Google Scholar

15 Aldous Huxley, The Perennial Philosophy (London, 1956), p. 312.Google Scholar

16 Donald Ferguson, Music as Metaphor (Minneapolis, 1960), p. 88.Google Scholar

17 Alain Daniélou, Northern Indian Music (London, 1954), II, 9.Google Scholar

18 Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, tr. Aylmer Maude (London, 1929), pp. 123–124.Google Scholar

19 Silbermann, The Sociology of Music, pp. 67–68.Google Scholar

20 A translation of Eduard Hanslick's “Tönend bewegte Form” in Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (1854). Others who have argued similarly that music can only achieve expression by means of tonal tension combined with motion are Gurney (1880) and Pratt (1931).Google Scholar

21 Leonard B. Meyer, in his Emotion and Meaning in Music (Chicago, 1956), p. 22, maintains that “emotion is evoked [only] when a tendency to respond is inhibited.” Thus “the frustration of expectation” is “the basis of the affective and the intellectual aesthetic response to music” (p. 43).Google Scholar

22 Italics in original. Bonavia, Musicians on Music, p. 204.Google Scholar

23 Derryck Cooke, The Language of Music (London, 1959), p. 12.Google Scholar

24 Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key (New York, 1948), p. 191.Google Scholar

25 Ferguson, Music as Metaphor, p. 87.Google Scholar

26 Ibid., p. 67.Google Scholar

27 Franz Boas, Primitive Art (New York, 1927), p. 349.Google Scholar

28 E. Fischer, The Necessity of Art (London, 1963), p. 152.Google Scholar

29 David Holbrook, “Innocence and Iron Wire,” Manchester Guardian Weekly, September 15, 1960, p. 15.Google Scholar

30 John Blacking, “Musical Expeditions of the Venda,” African Music, III, no. 1 (1962), 54–78; “The Role of Music in the Culture of the Venda of the Northern Transvaal,” in G. Kurath et al., eds., Studies in Ethnomusicology, II (New York, 1965).Google Scholar

31 John Blacking, “Songs, Dances, Mimes and Symbolism of Venda Girls’ Initiation Schools. Part I: Vhusha,” African Studies, XXVIII (1969).Google Scholar

32 Blacking, “The Role of Music,” pp. 31–47.Google Scholar

33 Blacking, Venda Children's Songs, p. 30.Google Scholar

34 John Blacking, Black Background (New York, 1964), pp. 79–81, 185–187; also “The Role of Music,” pp. 31–32.Google Scholar

35 Ibid., pp. 51–52.Google Scholar

36 Ibid., p. 38.Google Scholar

37 Sidney Finkelstein, Art and Society (New York, 1947), p. 21.Google Scholar

38 Published in 1929 by the Lovedale Press, South Africa, together with “Ivoti” (“The Vote”). Referred to in Deirdre Hansen, The Life and Work of Benjamin Tyamzashe, Occasional Paper no. 11, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University (Grahamstown, 1968), p. 22. The musical score and a full description are given on pp. 134–139 of Deirdre Hansen's master's thesis of the same title (Rhodes University, n.d.).Google Scholar

39 Neville Cardus, Gustav Mahler: His Mind and His Music (London, 1965), p. 149.Google Scholar

40 Gustav Mahler, Das Lied von der Erde, Universal Edition, sections 23, 30, and 63 to the end.Google Scholar

41 Cooke, Language of Music, p. 122.Google Scholar

42 Ibid., p. 33.Google Scholar

43 Leichtentritt, Music, History and Ideas, p. 142.Google Scholar

44 Ibid., p. 154.Google Scholar

45 Philip T. Barford, “Mahler: Athematic Archetype,” Music Review, XXI (1960), 297–316.Google Scholar

46 Blacking, “Songs, Dances, Mimes and Symbolism.”Google Scholar

47 Ibid., Figure 1A.Google Scholar

48 Ibid., Figure 1B.Google Scholar

49 Ibid., Figure 1C.Google Scholar

50 Ibid., Figure 1D.Google Scholar

51 S. F. Nadel, The Foundations of Social Anthropology (London, 1951), pp. 87–90.Google Scholar

52 Curt Sachs, The Rise of Music in the Ancient World East and West (New York, 1943), p. 21.Google Scholar

53 Nadel, Foundations, p. 89.Google Scholar

54 Sachs, Rise of Music, pp. 106ff.Google Scholar

55 John Blacking, “The Identification of Different Musical Styles and Their Historical and Sociological Foundations, with Special Reference to the Music of the Venda,” in Music and History in Asia and Africa (London, 1969).Google Scholar

56 Max Weber, The Rational and Social Foundations of Music, tr. and ed. Don Martindale, Johannes Riedel, and Gertrude Neuwirth (Carbondale, Ill., 1958), pp. 93–97.Google Scholar

57 Weber, Foundations of Music, p. 75.Google Scholar

58 Ibid., p. 6.Google Scholar

59 Ibid., p. 103.Google Scholar

60 A. M. Jones, Studies in African Music (London, 1959), I, 230.Google Scholar

61 Lang, Music in Western Civilization, p. 128.Google Scholar

62 Finkelstein, Art and Society, p. 29.Google Scholar

63 Blacking, “The Role of Music,” especially Figure 3.Google Scholar

64 Leichtentritt, Music, History and Ideas, p. 173.Google Scholar

65 Blacking, Venda Children's Songs, p. 193.Google Scholar

66 Curt Sachs, World History of the Dance, tr. Bessie Schoenberg (New York, 1937), pp. 181–203.Google Scholar

67 Mellers, Music and Society, pp. 81, 132.Google Scholar

68 Frank Howes, Man, Mind and Music (London, 1948), pp. 23–27.Google Scholar

69 Leichtentritt, Music, History and Ideas, p. 60.Google Scholar

70 W. Stark, The Sociology of Knowledge (London, 1958), p. 3.Google Scholar

71 Blacking, Venda Children's Songs, p. 196.Google Scholar

72 John Blacking, Process and Product in Human Society (Johannesburg, 1969), Figure 6; “Patterns of Nsenga Kalimba Music,” African Music, II, no. 4 (1961), 26–43.Google Scholar

73 E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (London, 1962), p. 171.Google Scholar

74 Bonavia, Musicians on Music, p. 203.Google Scholar

75 W. J. Turner, Beethoven: The Search for Reality (London, 1927), p. 261.Google Scholar

76 Alfred Einstein, Greatness in Music, tr. Cesar Searchinger (New York, 1945), p. 129.Google Scholar

77 Blacking, Process and Product, p. 22.Google Scholar

78 Morris I. Stein, “Creativity and Culture,” Journal of Psychology, XXXVI (1953), 312.Google Scholar

79 F. Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York, 1958).Google Scholar

80 Max Wertheimer, Productive Thinking (New York, 1945), especially pp. 124–125.Google Scholar

81 Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York, 1960), p. 399.Google Scholar

82 Milton Rokeach, “A Method of Studying Individual Differences in ‘Narrow-Mindedness,’ “ Journal of Personality, XX (1951), 219–233; “‘Narrow-Mindedness’ and Personality,” ibid., pp. 234–251.Google Scholar

83 Dika Newlin, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg (New York, 1947), p. 163.Google Scholar

84 Blacking, “The Role of Music,” pp. 36–37, 44–45, 52.Google Scholar

85 Blacking, Venda Children's Songs, pp. 177–183.Google Scholar

86 Cf. quotation from E. Fischer on p. 41.Google Scholar

87 Rudolph Reti, The Thematic Process in Music (London, 1961), p. 5.Google Scholar

88 Blacking, Venda Children's Songs, Figures 11 and 12.Google Scholar

89 Alan Walker, A Study in Musical Analysis (London, 1962), pp. 116–126.Google Scholar

90 Arnold Schoenberg, Style and Idea, tr. Dika Newlin (London, 1951), p. 194.Google Scholar