1 A German and a Hungarian edition appeared in Pest in 1861, another German edition in Leipzig in 1883.Google Scholar

2 See Major, Ervin, “Bihari János,” Magyar Zenei Dolgozatok, Kodály, Z., ed. (Budapest, 1928); Major, Ervin, A galántai cigányok (Budapest, 1967); Oszkár Dincsér, Két csíki hangszer, mozsika és gardon [Two instruments of Csík, violin and gardon] (Budapest, 1943); Sándor Dömötör, “Mióta muzsikusok Magyarországon a cigányok?” [Since when are the gypsies musicians in Hungary?], Ethnographia (Budapest, 1934), pp. 156–176; Antal Molnár, Magyar-e a cigányzene? [Is gypsy music Hungarian?] (Budapest, 1937); Margit Prahács, “A cigányzene és a magyar népzene” [Gypsy music and Hungarian folk music], Napkelet (Budapest, 1930), PP. 47–52; “A magyar népzene vitás kárdáseiről” [Concerning unsettled questions in Hungarian folk music], Napkelet (Budapest, 1930), pp. 47–52; Endre Spur, “A cigányzene” [Gypsy music], A magyar muzsika könyve [The book of Hungarian music], Imre Molnár, ed. (Budapest, 1936), pp. 112–116; also “A Supplementary Note on the Gypsy Orchestras of Hungary,” Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society (1937), pp. 106–110; “The Language and Status of the Gypsy Orchestras of Hungary,” ibid. (1938), pp. 46–58; “Mese és valóság a cigányzene körül” [Fiction and fact in gypsy music], A Délamerikai Magyar Hírlap évkönyve (1956), pp. 127–137; ibid. (1957), pp. 131–146; “A kvartélycsinálók [The quarter-makers], ibid. (1959), pp. 157–171; Bálint Sárosi, “Étterem-monográfia” [Monograph on a restaurant], Magyar Zene (Budapest, 1966), pp. 587–588; Dezső Legány, A magyar zene krónikája [Chronicle of Hungarian music] (Budapest, 1962). This work contains an important part of the historical data concerning gypsy musicians.Google Scholar

3 Especially Bence Szabolcsi, A XIX. század magyar romantikus zenéje [Hungarian romantic music of the nineteenth century] (Budapest, 1959); also in A magyar zene évszázadai, II (Budapest, 1961).Google Scholar

4 Ethnographia (Budapest, 1931): German summary in the Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft (1931), pp. 580–582. Republished in Hungarian in Bartók összegyűjtött írásai [Collected writings of Bartók], András Szőllősy, ed., I (Budapest, 1966), 623–640.Google Scholar

5 Lajtha, László, Széki gyűjtés [Recordings of Szék] (Budapest, 1954); Szépkenyerűszentmártoni gyűjtés [Recordings of Szépkenyerűszentmárton] (Budapest, 1954); Kőrispataki gyűjtés [Recordings of Kőrispatak] (Budapest, 1955).Google Scholar

6 Salmen, W., Der fahrende Musiker im europäischen Mittelalter (Kassel, 1960), p. 111.Google Scholar

7 “… datto a zingani qualli sonono di lauto a lisola dila Maesta di madama duc. I”; see Albert Nyári, A modenai Hyppolit Codexek [The Hyppolit codices of Modena], Századok (Budapest, 1874), p. 81.Google Scholar

8 “Eodem die pharaonibus, qui coram Regia Maiestate in stadio, ubi equi sue Maiestatis et dominorum currerunt, cythara tangere habuerunt, iussu sue Maiestatis, pro bibalibus eorum dedi fl. II.” Cf. Vilmos Fraknói, “II. Lajos Király számadási Könyve,” Magyar Történelmi Tár (1877), p. 163.Google Scholar

9 For the Hungarian town-dweller and the foreigner of the nineteenth century, “gypsy” was almost identical with “gypsy musician.” This interpretation, however, was not valid in the sixteenth century. A sixteenth-century report on the Rákos National Assembly says merely “… hat man auch Zygainer peschtelt.” Cf. Engel, Geschichte des Ungarischen Reiches und seiner Nebenländer, II (Halle, 1798), 49.Google Scholar

10 Takáts, Sándor, “A török-magyar énekesek és muzsikások [The Turkish-Hungarian singers and musicians], Rajzok a török világból, I (Budapest, 1915), 422.Google Scholar

11 Lawenclaw, Hans, Newe Chronica Türkischer Nation von Türcken selbst beschrieben (Frankfurt am Mayn, 1595), p. 118. For the pertinent drawing see also Emil Haraszti, La musique hongroise (Paris, 1933), pp. 34, 40.Google Scholar

12 Takáts, op. cit., p. 429.Google Scholar

13 Szamosközy, István, Történeti Maradványai 1566–1603 [Historical legacies 1566–1603], Sándor Szilágyi, ed., II (Budapest, 1877), 349.Google Scholar

14 Cf. István Barna, “Ungarischer Simplicissimus,” Zenetudományi Tanulmányok, I (Budapest, 1953), 505.Google Scholar

15 Bence Szabolcsi, A Magyar zene évszázadai, I (Budapest, 1959), 248.Google Scholar

16 Haraszti, Emil, “Barok zene és kuruc nóta” [Baroque music and Kuruts song], Századok (Budapest, 1933), pp. 552, 565; Tamás Esze, “Zenetörténeti adataink II. Rákóczi Ferenc szabadságharcának idejéből” [Musicohistorical data from the time of the war of independence of Ferencz Rákóczi II], Zenetudományi Tanulmányok, IV (Budapest, 1955), 59–97.Google Scholar

17 See Anzeigen aus sämtlich-kaiserlich-königlichen Erbländern, VI (Vienna, 1776), 14.Google Scholar

18 Ibid., p. 15.Google Scholar

19 Diaries by Vass, György Czegei and Vass, László Czegei, 1659–1739, Gyula Nagy, ed., Magyar Történelmi Évkönyvek és Naplók a XVI-XVIII. századból (Budapest, 1896), III.Google Scholar

20 The kontrahás (correctly kontrás) in a gypsy ensemble is a violinist or viola player, whose double-stop accompaniment follows a stereotyped rhythmic pattern. Cf. Bálint Sárosi, “Die Volksmusikinstruments Ungarns,” Handbuch der europäischen Volksmusikinstrumente, I (Leipzig, 1967), 107.Google Scholar

21 Zoltán Kodály, A magyar népzene [Hungarian folk music] (Budapest, 1960), p. 58.Google Scholar

22 Cf. Magyar Kurír, June 13, 1787.Google Scholar

23 Pressburger Zeitung, March 13, 1784; see Major, Ervin, “A galántai cigányok” [The gypsies of Galánta], Fejezetek a magyar zene történetéből (Budapest, 1967), p. 127.Google Scholar

24 Of all the famous virtuosos of the Verbunkos era, only Bihari was a gypsy. Lavotta was a Hungarian nobleman. Csermák was probably of Czech origin; he began his career as a violin teacher in Vienna.Google Scholar

25 Martin v. Schwartner, Statistik des Königreichs Ungern, I (Ofen, 1809), 152.Google Scholar

26 de Gerando, A., Siebenbürgen und seine Bewohner (Leipzig, 1845), P. 213.Google Scholar

27 Mátray, Gábor, “A magyar zene és a magyar cigányok zenéje” [Hungarian music and the music of the Hungarian gypsies], Magyar és Erdélyország képekben, IV (Pest, 1854), 122.Google Scholar

28 Gerando, op. cit., p. 212.Google Scholar

29 Lugosi, Dome, “A szegedi zenekultúra története” [The history of the music culture of Szeged], Muzsika (Budapest, 1929), pp. 10–51.Google Scholar

30 Hölgyfutár, Nov. 3, 1851.Google Scholar

31 von Gsaplovics, Johann, Gemälde von Ungern, I (Pest, 1829), 322.Google Scholar

32 Liszt, F., Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie (Paris, 1859), p. 220.Google Scholar

33 The aprája is an intermezzo and postlude, formed by the motivic repetition of one of two bar figures. Cf. Bálint Sárosi, “Die Volksmusikinstruments Ungarns,” Handbuch der europäischen Volksmusikinstrumente, I (Leipzig, 1967), 61.Google Scholar

34 Salmen, W., “A középkori magyar vándorénekesek külföldi útjai” [Travels abroad of the Hungarian minstrels of the Middle Ages], Zenetudományi tanulmányok Kodály Zoltán 75. születésnapjára (Budapest, 1957), pp. 159–165.Google Scholar

35 Bartalus, István, “A czigány és viszonya zenénkhez” [The gypsy and his relation to our music], Budapesti Szemle (1879), p. 185.Google Scholar

36 Kodály, op. cit., p. 57.Google Scholar

37 Dincsér, op. cit., p. 4.Google Scholar

38 Cf. Bálint, Sándor, Népünk és nyelvünk (Budapest, 1933), p. 92.Google Scholar

39 On peasant bands see Sárosi, op. cit., p. 105.Google Scholar

40 The gardon is a violoncello-like instrument that is not bowed but struck with a stick and twanged, ibid., p. 61.Google Scholar

41 A special census in 1782 revealed 43,787 gypsies in Hungary of whom 582 were musicians (see Schwartner, op. cit., I, 153). In 1901 there were 287,940 gypsies including 17,000 musicians in an area then comprising all Transylvania and the territories since annexed by neighboring countries, Zenevilág (1901–02), II, 450–451. Three thousand of the gypsy musicians worked in Budapest. Today, of approximately 150,000 gypsies, some eight to nine thousand are professional musicians.Google Scholar

42 Péter Apor tells us that when he was a young man the aristocrats had “singer- butlers” whom they had sing at feasts. “Old Hungarian deeds they put in verse, and to that we all listened with pleasure,” Metamorphosis Transylvaniae (1736, 1739).Google Scholar

43 Sulzer, Franz Joseph, Geschichte des Transalpinischen Daciens, III (Vienna, 1872), 12.Google Scholar

44 Kodály, op. cit., p. 57.Google Scholar

45 Klein, Henrik, “Ueber die Nationaltänze der Ungarn,” Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1800), p. 28.Google Scholar

46 Gsaplovics, op. cit., I, 321.Google Scholar

47 Ujfalussy, Lajos, “Még egy szó Lisztről és a magyar zenéről” [One word more about Liszt and Hungarian music], Vasárnapi Ujság (Pest, 1859), p. 476.Google Scholar

48 Nefelejts (Pest, 1859), p. 333.Google Scholar

49 See footnote 4 above.Google Scholar

50 Lajtha, László, Dunántúli táncok és dallamok [Transdanubian dances and melodies] (Budapest, 1962), p. x.Google Scholar

51 Dincsér, op. cit., p. 4.Google Scholar

52 Liszt, op. cit., p. 274. With the exception of the bagpipe, the instruments (recorder, horn, shawm) are given in corrupt Hungarian on page 273.Google Scholar

53 Csaplovics, op. cit., I, 322.Google Scholar

54 Dincsér, op. cit., p. 13.Google Scholar

55 Lajtha, László, “Egy ‘hamis’ zenekar” [An orchestra “out of tune”], Zenetudományi Tanulmányok, I, Bence Szabolcsi and Dénes Bartha, eds. (Budapest, 1953), p. 172.Google Scholar

56 Rhythmic patterns are occasionally improvised on pots, furniture, or with the help of two tablespoons. For the latter see Sárosi, op. cit., p. 12, as well as F. Hoerburger in Revista de Folclor (Bucharest, 1959), p. 256.Google Scholar

57 On the esztam (pron. estam), see Sárosi, op. cit., p. 107.Google Scholar

58 It is worth mentioning, however, that in slow gypsy folk songs underrated notes are held at the end of the second and fourth melodic phrases and that the traditional style of gypsy band does not permit such places to remain “unfilled.”Google Scholar

59 Safvate, Nelly Caron-Dariouche, Iran: Les traditions musicales (Berlin, 1966), p. 19.Google Scholar

60 According to information supplied by Professor Manol Todorov of the Sofia Academy of Musical Art, the Bulgarian gypsies similarly do not imitate Bulgarian folk polyphony but the “modern” European way of singing in thirds.Google Scholar

61 The saying “Sírva vigad a magyar” (“Hungarians take their pleasures sadly”) explains to some extent the ubiquitous gypsy musicians at joyous occasions.Google Scholar

62 A large illustrated book about gypsy careers by Miklós Markó was first published in Budapest in 1896 under the title, Cigányzenészek Albuma [Album of gypsy musicians]; it was republished in 1927 as A régi mulató Magyarország [The old merrymaking Hungary].Google Scholar

63 Foreign countries, too, got to know the colorful, braided, booted costume of the Hungarian nobleman as the characteristic gypsy dress. In 1910, Debussy spoke of “une élégance barbare …,” Lettres de Claude Debussy à sa femme, Emma, Pasteur Valléry-Radot, ed. (Paris, 1957), p. 89.Google Scholar

64 On harmonization see Sárosi, op. cit., p. no. From the beginning of the 1850's we often come across information about gypsies having recourse to the help of educated musicians — military band leaders, conductors of theater orchestras, village cantors — who, for a remuneration, taught them to read music, harmonized and arranged for them, and taught them new pieces from scores. See Mátray, op. cit., p. 123; Bartalus, op. cit. (1865), p. 70; Margit Prahács, “A magyar népzene vitás kérdéseiről” [Concerning unsettled questions of Hungarian folk music], Napkelet (Budapest, 1930), p. 509. More recently, a number of gypsy bandmasters acquired the necessary schooling to train orchestras. One of the most famous was an old Budapest musician named Gábor Rigó (d. 1970).Google Scholar

65 Bartók, B., Rumanian Folk Music, III (1967), lxxvii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

66 Dincsér, op. cit., p. 65.Google Scholar

67 Kodály, op. cit., p. 63.Google Scholar

68 Lajtha, László, Széki gyűjtés, p. 6.Google Scholar

69 Kodály, op. cit., p. 57.Google Scholar

70 Avasi, Béla, “A széki banda harmonizálása” [The harmonization of the gypsy band of Szék], A Néprajzi Múzeum Értesítője, Budapest (1954), pp. 25–45.Google Scholar

71 Around 1850, they were called to task for their training by foreign (mainly German and Czech) teachers who influenced their repertoire, which included parts of operas and operettas. See Mátray, op. cit., p. 123; also József Patay, “Igénytelen jegyzetek …” [Modest notices], Magyar — és Erdélyország Képekben, IV (Pest, 1854), 126. In the 1860's, Ferenc Sárközi, one of the famous gypsy band leaders of Pest, actually played operatic pieces by Wagner. See Mihály Mosonyi, “Egy jóslat” [A prophecy], Zenészeti Lapok (Pest, 1864), p. 20.Google Scholar