1 R Fefer, S. Akhtar, and W. Morrison, ‘Digital Trade and US Trade Policy’, Congressional Research Service (5 November 2018), https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44565.pdf.

2 Lendle, A., Olarreaga, M., Schropp, S., and Vezina, P., ‘There Goes Gravity: eBay and the Death of Distances’, 126 The Economic Journal (2016), 406–441CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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4 McKinsey Global Institute, ‘Digital Globalization: The New Era of Global Flows’ (March 2016), www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/business%20functions/mckinsey%20digital/our%20insights/digital%20globalization%20the%20new%20era%20of%20global%20flows/mgi-digital-globalization-full-report.ashx.

5 A. Chander, ‘Trade 2.0’, 34 Yale Journal of International Law (2009), 281–330.

6 World Trade Organization, ‘Easing the Flow of Goods across Borders’, Trade Facilitation Agreement (2015), www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/20y_e/wto_tradefacilitation_e.pdf.

7 World Trade Organization (WTO), ‘Joint Statement on Electronic Commerce’, WT/MIN(17)/60 (13 December 2017), https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/MIN17/60.pdf; ‘Some WTO Members Push for E-Commerce Rules as Broader Deal Fails’, Reuters (13 December 2017), www.reuters.com/article/us-trade-wto-digital/some-wto-members-to-push-for-e-commerce-rules-as-broader-deal-fails-idUSKBN1E72YV.

8 J. Zients, ‘Bringing Trade Agreements into the 21st Century’, White House Blog (15 April 2015), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/04/16/bringing-trade-agreements-21st-century.

9 C. Dougherty, ‘Global trade Talks Collapse over Agricultural Subsidies’, NY Times (21 June 2007), www.nytimes.com/2007/06/21/business/worldbusiness/21iht-wto.4.6264066.html.

10 J. López González and M. Jouanjean, ‘Digital Trade: Developing a Framework for Analysis’, OECD Trade Policy Paper No. 205, OECD Publishing, Paris (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/524c8c83-en (‘In this fast evolving environment, governments are facing growing regulatory challenges, not just in managing issues arising from digital disruption, but also in ensuring that the opportunities and benefits from digital trade can be realized and shared inclusively.’)

11 B. Hoekman and P. C. Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Spillovers and the Trading System: From Coherence to Cooperation’, E15 Initiative, Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and World Economic Forum (2015), http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/E15-Regulatory-OP-Hoekman-and-Mavroidis-FINAL.pdf.

12 Lang, J. (2000), ‘The First Five Years of the WTO’, 21 Law & Policy of International Business (2000), 801Google Scholar (discussing services negotiations as being fundamentally different than traditional goods negotiations).

13 Economist Intelligence Unit (2012), ‘Agent of Change: The Future of Technology Disruption in Business’, White Paper, www.werktrends.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Economist-IU_Agent-of-change_The-future-of-technology-disruption-in-business_2012_Whitepaper.pdf.

14 O. B. Waxman, ‘This is the First Item Ever Sold on eBay’, Time (2 September 2015), http://time.com/4018841/first-item-sold-listed-ebay/.

15 International Trade Centre, ‘New Pathways to E-Commerce: A Global MSME Competitiveness Survey’, ITC, Geneva (2017), www.intracen.org/publication/New-Pathways-to-E-commerce.

16 See L. Tuthill, ‘E-Commerce and the WTO, MIKTA Workshop on Electronic Commerce’ (5 July 2016), www.wto.org/english/forums_e/business_e/1_1_TUTHILL.pdf (describing the start of the WTO E-commerce Programme in 1998); See also US–Australia Free Trade Agreement Chapter 16 (2004) (first US FTA covering e-commerce).

17 R. Gebeloff and K. Russel, ‘How the Growth of E-Commerce is Shifting Retail Jobs’, NY Times (6 July 2017), www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/07/06/business/ecommerce-retail-jobs.html.

18 R. Bukht and R. Heeks, ‘Defining, Conceptualizing and Measuring the Digital Economy’, Working Paper No. 68, Manchester Centre for Development Informatics (2017), https://diodeweb.files.wordpress.com/2017/08/diwkppr68-diode.pdf (describing digitalization as the impact of information communication technology on every aspect of the economy); D. Schiller, ‘The Internet and Business in 19 Key Essays on How the Internet is Changing Our Lives’ (2013), 264–265, www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/books/19-key-essays-on-how-internet-is-changing-our-lives/.

19 PayPal, Fintech from the Frontlines (2017), https://publicpolicy.paypal-corp.com/sites/default/files/policy/PayPal-Policy-Paper_Fintech-from-the-Frontline.pdf.

20 ‘CBA to launch M-Shwari loan service in Ivory Coast next year’, Daily Nation (29 November 2016), www.nation.co.ke/business/CBA-to-launch-M-Shwari-loan-service/996-3468334-7tq5usz/index.html.

21 McKinsey Global Institute, ‘Global Flows in a Digital Age: How Trade, Finance, People, and Data Connect the World Economy’ (April 2014), 10, www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured%20insights/Globalization/Global%20flows%20in%20a%20digital%20age/MGI%20Global%20flows%20in%20a%20digial%20age%20Executive%20summary.ashx (charting how the share of services trade that is digitally enabled is growing rapidly).

22 World Economic Forum, ‘Digital Transformation of Industries: Demystifying Digital and Securing $100 Trillion for Society and Industry by 2025’ (January 2016), 11, http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/wef1601-digitaltransformation-1401.pdf (describing the potential for digital to transform the healthcare sector); OECD, ‘Cross Border Higher Education for Development’ (2006), 72, www.oecd.org/education/research/37477437.pdf (discussing the potential for the Internet's ability to enable cross-border tertiary education).

23 H. Kox and H. Kyvik Nordàs, ‘Services Trade and Domestic Regulation’, MPRA Paper No. 2116 (14 February 2007), https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/2116/1/MPRA_paper_2116.pdf (describing how professional services typically required an in-person interaction with a trusted expert).

24 L. Branstetter, ‘TPP and Digital Trade in Assessing the Trans Pacific Partnership’, PIIE Briefing 16-4, Peterson Institute for International Economics (March 2016), https://piie.com/system/files/documents/piieb16-4.pdf.

25 International Trade Administration, ‘Exporting is Good for Your Bottom Line’, www.trade.gov/cs/factsheet.asp.

26 K. Vanhemert, ‘GE's Radical Software Helps Jet Engines Fix Themselves’, Wired (10 October 2013), www.wired.com/2013/10/three-design-trends-ges-using-to-make-software-for-jet-engines-and-wind-turbines/.

27 T. B. Lee, ‘How Tesla Surpassed GM and Ford to Become Americas Most Valuable Car Company’, Vox (10 April 2017), www.vox.com/new-money/2017/4/4/15176904/tesla-ford-stock-price.

28 R. D. Caballar, ‘The Future of Farming is in the Cloud’, The Week (27 November 2017), https://theweek.com/articles/732140/future-farming-cloud.

29 PayPal, Democratizing Globalization (2017), https://publicpolicy.paypal-corp.com/sites/default/files/policy/PayPal-Policy-Paper_Democratizing-Globalization.pdf (small businesses are defined as those selling between $30,000 and $3 million from 2015–2016; the sample dataset of 30,000 was compared against a larger dataset of 100,000 small businesses for robustness).

30 Price Waterhouse Coopers, ‘Industry 4.0: Building the Digital Enterprise’ (2016), 11, www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/industries-4.0/landing-page/industry-4.0-building-your-digital-enterprise-april-2016.pdf.

31 See e.g. M. Murgia and M. Arnold, ‘Bank of Tech Poses Growing Threat to Traditional Institutions’, Financial Times (14 February 2017), www.ft.com/content/1a862cd2-efd3-11e6-ba01-119a44939bb6.

32 S. Case, The Third Wave, New York: Simon & Schuster (2016).

33 Ibid.

34 See J. Zittrain, ‘Be Careful What You Ask For: Reconciling a Global Internet and Local Law’, Research Publication No. 2003-0, https://cyber.harvard.edu/wg_home/uploads/204/2003-03.pdf; Hestermeyer, H. P., ‘Personal Jurisdiction for Internet Torts: Towards an International Solution’, 26 Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business (2006), 267Google Scholar; Michael Geist, ‘Is There a There? Toward Greater Certainty for Internet Jurisdiction’ (2001), https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1331&context=btlj.

35 See Gao., H. ‘Can WTO Law Keep Up with the Internet?’, 108 Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, American Society of International Law (2014), 350–352CrossRefGoogle Scholar, https://doi.org/10.5305/procannmeetasil.108.0350; Knapp, K., ‘Internet Filtering: The Ineffectiveness of WTO Remedies and the Availability of Alternative Tort Remedies’, 28 John Marshall Journal of Computer and Information Law (2010), 273Google Scholar, https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&https://redir=1&article=1689&context=jitpl; M. Burri, ‘Should There Be New Multilateral Rules for Digital Trade?’, E15Initiative, Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and World Economic Forum, 2015, http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/E15-Innovation-Burri-FINAL.pdf.

36 Kox and Nordàs, ‘Services Trade and Domestic Regulation’, supra n. 23.

37 PayPal, 21st Century Regulation (2013), https://publicpolicy.paypal-corp.com/sites/default/files/policy/PayPal-Policy-Paper_Payment-Regulations-Booklet-US.pdf.

38 Trammell, A. M. and Bambauer, D. E., ‘Personal Jurisdiction and the “Interwebs”’, 100 Cornell Law Review (2015), 1129Google Scholar.

39 Reidenberg, J. R., ‘Technology and Internet Jurisdiction’, 153 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (2005), 1951, 1963–1967CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 OECD, ‘Key Issues for Digital Transformation in the G20’, Report prepared for a joint G20 German Presidency/ OECD Conference, Berlin, Germany (12 January 2017) , 86–87, www.oecd.org/g20/key-issues-for-digital-transformation-in-the-g20.pdf.

41 Jackson, J., ‘The Perils of Globalization and the World Trading System’, 24 Fordham International Law Journal (2005), 371Google Scholar.

42 OECD, ‘Key Issues for Digital Transformation in the G20’, supra note 40, 54 (‘The Internet has thus achieved global interconnection without the development of any international regulatory regime.’)

43 A. Mattoo and D. K. Mishra, ‘Foreign Professionals and Domestic Regulation’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4782 (2016), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/605301468323722918/pdf/WPS4782.pdf (looking at US licensing restrictions on Indian professionals).

44 Meltzer, J. P., ‘The Internet, Cross-Border Data Flows and International Trade’, 2 Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies (2015), 90CrossRefGoogle Scholar (‘International trade in services is where the Internet has had the most significant impact, whether it is online music, video or software, access to professional services in health, architecture or consulting, or as a result of outsourcing by companies of back office services such as call centres and payroll processing’).

45 A. Mattoo, ‘Economics and Law of Trade in Services’ (February 2005), 23, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.548.3642&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

46 Jackson, ‘The Perils of Globalization and the World Trading System’, supra note 41.

47 WTO, ‘Joint Statement on Electronic Commerce’, supra note 7; ‘Some WTO Members to Push for E-Commerce Rules as Broader Deal Fails’, Reuters (13 December 2017), www.reuters.com/article/us-trade-wto-digital/some-wto-members-to-push-for-e-commerce-rules-as-broader-deal-fails-idUSKBN1E72YV.

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52 Ibid.

53 Reuters Staff, ‘Storm-battered Antigua Asks US to Settle 12-year old WTO bill, Reuters (29 September 2017), www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-antigua-wto/storm-battered-antigua-asks-u-s-to-settle-12-year-old-wto-bill-idUSKCN1C4165.

54 T. Bollyky, ‘The Role of Regulatory Cooperation in the Future of the WTO’, Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) (2015), http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/RTA-Exchange-Regulatory-Coherence-Bollyky-Final.pdf.

55 Shaffer, G., ‘Transatlantic Governance through Mutual Recognition and Safe Harbor Agreements’, 9 Columbia Journal of European Law (Fall 2002), 29, 29–32Google Scholar.

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57 Hoekman and Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Cooperation and the Trading System’, supra note 11 (arguing that trade agreements are designed to combat discrimination); Gao, H. S., ‘Google's China Problem: A Case Study on Trade, Technology and Human Rights under the GATS’, 6 Asian Journal of WTO and International Health Law and Policy (2011), 347, 383–385Google Scholar.

58 P. Carsten and M. Martina, ‘US Says China Internet Censorship a Burden for Businesses’, Reuters (8 April 2016), www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet-idUSKCN0X50RD.

59 S. Donnan, ‘WTO Wrestles with Relevance in Age of ecommerce’, Financial Times (13 December 2017), www.ft.com/content/d9f63c20-e01d-11e7-a8a4-0a1e63a52f9c.

60 Ibid.; WTO, ‘Joint Statement on Electronic Commerce’, supra note 7.

61 See Transpacific Partnership Agreement, ‘Electronic Commerce’, Chapter 16, and ‘Intellectual Property, Chapter 18 (7 June 2018), https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/trans-pacific-partnership/tpp-full-text.

62 A. Mattoo, ‘Services Trade and Regulatory Cooperation’, E15Initiative, Geneva International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD and World Economic Forum (July 2015), http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/E15-Services-Mattoo-FINAL.pdf.

63 A. T. Guzman, ‘Global Governance and the WTO’, UC Berkeley Boalt Working Papers in Law (2001), 55–56, https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2011&context=facpubs (describing how trade policymakers are two steps removed from the demands of individual citizens).

64 Australian Government, ‘TPP Myths vs Realities’, Background papers, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, https://dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/not-yet-in-force/tpp/Pages/background-papers-tpp-myths-vs-realities.aspx (describing the outreach of Australian trade negotiators to a wide variety of stakeholders including consumer groups).

65 Nicolaidis, K. and Shaffer, G., ‘Transnational Mutual Recognition Regimes: Governance without Global Government’, 64 Law and Contemporary Problems (2005), 263, 264Google Scholar.

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67 Ibid.

68 A. Mattoo, ‘Services Trade and Regulatory Cooperation’, E15 Initiative, Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and World Economic Forum (2015), http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/E15-Services-Mattoo-FINAL.pdf.

69 U. Ahmed and A. Chander, ‘Information Goes Global: Protecting Privacy, Security, and the New Economy in a World of Cross-border Data Flows’, E15 Initiative, Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and World Economic Forum (2015), http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/E15-Digital-Chander-and-Ahmed-Final.pdf.

70 ‘Pre-Hearing Brief of the Computer and Communications Industry Association in re Global Digital Trade I: Market Opportunities and Key Foreign Trade Restrictions’, United States International Trade Commission (28 March 2017), www.ccianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/PHB-to-USITC-2.2018.pdf.

71 C. Chen, ‘United States and European Union Approaches to Internet Jurisdiction and Their Impact on E-Commerce’, 25 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law, 423, 432.

72 European Union General Data Protection Portal (2019), https://eugdpr.org.

73 Fortinet, Preparing for the General Data Protection Regulation (2017), www.fortinet.com/content/dam/fortinet/assets/white-papers/preparing-general-data-protection-regulation.pdf.

74 H. Zylberberg, ‘Democracy Hacked: A Security Argument for Data Protection’, Lawfare (26 January 2017), www.lawfareblog.com/democracy-hacked-security-argument-data-protection.

75 D. Meyer, ‘Introducing: South Africa's First DPA’, IAPP (28 March 2017), https://iapp.org/news/a/introducing-south-africas-first-dpa/.

76 A. Abkowitz, ‘China's Internet Giants Face Users’ Anxiety over Privacy’, Wall Street Journal (8 January 2018), www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-internet-giants-face-users-anxiety-over-privacy-1515411818.

77 Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, White Paper on Data Protection framework for India (2017), http://meity.gov.in/white-paper-data-protection-framework-india-public-comments-invited.

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81 M. A. Weiss and K. Archick, ‘US–EU Data Privacy: From Safe Harbor to Privacy Shield’, Congressional Research Services (19 May 2016), 3–4, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44257.pdf.

82 Mattoo, ‘Services Trade and Regulatory Cooperation’, supra note 68.

83 Weiss and Archick, ‘US–EU Data Privacy’, supra n. 81.

84 Department of Commerce, ‘Statement from US Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker on European Court of Justice Safe Harbor Framework Decision’, press release (6 October 2015), www.bvdw.org/fileadmin/bvdw/upload/dokumente/recht/eu_us_privacy_shield/Statement_des_U.S._Secretary_of_Commerce__engl.__06.10.2105.pdf; ‘European Commission Launches EU–US Privacy Shield: Stronger Protection for Transatlantic Data Flows’ (12 July 2016), http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-2461_en.htm.

85 G. C. Hufbauer and E. Jung, ‘The US–EU Privacy Shield Pact: A Work in Progress’, PB 16-12 (August 2016), 3–4, https://piie.com/publications/policy-briefs/us-eu-privacy-shield-pact-work-progress.

86 Ibid. at 4 (describing the Federal Trade Commission as the primary enforcer of Privacy Shield in the US).

87 N. Crain and M. Crain, ‘The Impact of Regulatory Costs on Small Firms’, Small Business Administration (September 2010), www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/The%20Impact%20of%20Regulatory%20Costs%20on%20Small%20Firms%20(Full).pdf (describing the higher cost per employee of regulatory compliance for smaller businesses as compared to medium businesses).

88 Kox and Nordàs, ‘Services Trade and Domestic Regulation’, supra 23.

89 Jackson, ‘The Perils of Globalization and the World Trading System’, supra note 41.

90 Shaffer, ‘Transatlantic Governance through Mutual Recognition and Safe Harbor Agreements’, supra n. 55, 29 (‘Under a policy of harmonization, regulators in separate jurisdictions agree to adopt identical substantive standards and procedures’); P. Dee, ‘The Australia–US Free Trade Agreement: An Assessment’, Pacific Economic Papers No. 345 (2005), 20, https://crawford.anu.edu.au/pdf/pep/pep-345.pdf.

91 Hoekman and Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Cooperation and the Trading System’, supra note 11; A. Mattoo, ‘Services Trade and Regulatory Cooperation’, supra note 68; International Trade Administration, US–Mexico High Level Regulatory Cooperation Council (2010), www.trade.gov/hlrcc/.

92 See ‘Interoperability: A Key to Meaningful Use’, An Oracle Technical White Paper (November 2010), www.oracle.com/us/industries/healthcare/interoperability-wp-188782.pdf; U. Gasser and J. Palfrey, ‘Breaking Down Digital Barriers: When and How ICT Interoperability Drives Innovation’, Berkman Publication Series (November 2007), 4–5, https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/2710237; ‘Interoperability – A Necessary Complication’, Rail News (12 August 2015), www.railengineer.uk/2015/08/12/interoperability-a-necessary-complication/.

93 Shaffer, ‘Transatlantic Governance through Mutual Recognition and Safe Harbor Agreements’, supra n. 55, 29.

94 K. Nicolaidis, ‘A World Of Difference: Exploring the Dilemma of Mutual Recognition’ (2005), www.princeton.edu/~hmilner/Conference_files/KEOHANE/nicolaidis.pdf.

95 K. Lenaerts, ‘The principle of Mutual Recognition in the Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice’, The Fourth Annual Sir Jeremy Lever Lecture (30 January 2015), www.law.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxlaw/the_principle_of_mutual_recognition_in_the_area_of_freedom_judge_lenaerts.pdf.

96 G. Hepburn, ‘Alternatives to Traditional Regulation’, OECD Report, www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/42245468.pdf.

97 S. Aigner, ‘Mutual Recognition of Authorized Economic Operators and Security Measures’, 4 World Customs Journal (2010), 47, 50.

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102 Ibid.

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104 See Shapiro, E., ‘All is not Fair in the Privacy Trade: The Safe Harbor Agreement and the World Trade Organization’, 71 Fordham Law Review (2003), 2781Google Scholar.

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107 J. Lang, ‘The First Five Years of the WTO’, 21 Law and Policy of International Business (2000), 801, https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/geojintl31&div=49&g_sent=1&casa_token= (discussing services negotiations as being fundamentally different than traditional goods negotiations) (discussing the lack of basic rule of law practices in developing countries).

108 Mattoo and Sauve, ‘Domestic Regulation and Trade in Services: Looking Ahead’, supra note 106.

109 Hoekman and Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Cooperation and the Trading System’, supra note 11.

110 Nicolaidis and Shaffer, ‘Transnational Mutual Recognition Regimes: Governance without Global Government’, supra note 64.

111 Hoekman and Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Cooperation and the Trading System’, supra note 11.

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113 OECD, ‘Key Issues for Digital Transformation in the G20’, supra note 40, 86–87.

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120 Hoekman and Mavroidis, ‘Regulatory Cooperation and the Trading System’, supra note 11.

121 Mattoo and Sauve, ‘Domestic Regulation and Trade in Services: Looking Ahead’, supra note 106.