1 Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 51.

2 See, generally, Cho, Sungjoon and Kelly, Claire R., ‘Are World Trading Rules Passé?’, 53 Va. J. Int'l L. 623 (2013)Google Scholar.

3 See, notably, Kono, Daniel Y., ‘Optimal Obfuscation: Democracy and Trade Policy Transparency’, 100 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 369 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 WTO, Trade Topics, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_e.htm.

5 See Lang, Andrew and Scott, Joanne, ‘The Hidden World of WTO Governance’, 20 Eur. J. Int'l L. 575, 596 (2009)Google Scholar (observing that the SPS Agreement monitoring process ‘serves as a catalyst for dialogue’, which allows for the exchange of information and situates the committee as ‘an interlocutor in the process of international harmonization’).

6 See, e.g., Bhagwati, Jagdish, ‘The Selfish Hegemon Must Offer a New Deal on Trade’, Financial Times, 20 August 2008Google Scholar, at 11.

7 See Sen, Amartya, ‘Global Doubts’, Harvard Magazine 68 (September–October 2000)Google Scholar.

8 International Labour Organisation, ‘Constitution of the International Labour Organisation and Selected Texts’, Annex, Declaration Concerning the Aims and Purposes of the International Labour Organisation, para. 1(c), 2010, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/leg/download/constitution.pdf.

9 For purposes of this article, norms are defined as ‘collective expectations about proper behavior for a given identity’. Jepperson, Ronald L. et al. , ‘Norms, Identity, and Culture in National Security’, in Katzenstein, Peter J. (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996)Google Scholar, 54; see also, Durkheim, Émile, Les Règles de la Méthode Sociologique, 8th edn (Paris: F. Alcan, 1927), 127Google Scholar (‘Society is not a simple sum of individuals, but the system formed by their association which represents a specific reality with its own characteristics’), quoted and translated in Moeller, Hans-Geog, Luhmann Explained: From Souls to Systems (Chicago: Open Court, 2006), 229Google Scholar; Taylor, Charles, ‘Interpretation and the Sciences of Man’, 25 Rev. Metaphy (1971)Google Scholar.

10 See Kirgis, Frederic L., International Organizations in Their Legal Setting, 2nd edn (West Publishing Co, 1993), viiiGoogle Scholar.

11 See Habermas, Jürgen, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, trans. Rehg, William (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 18Google Scholar.

12 Cf. Bhargava, Rajeev, Individualism in Social Science (New York: Oxford, 1992), 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 See Habermas, supra n. 11, at 21. Scholars discuss ‘legal discourse’ beyond the realm of IR theories (such as constructivism), such as in legal philosophy. See, notably, Goodrich, Peter, Legal Discourse: Studies in Linguistics, Rhetoric and Legal Analysis (New York: St Martin's Press, 1987), 2Google Scholar (regarding law as a ‘system of communication’). This article draws on, and benefits from, rich discussions from a broad range of literatures whenever relevant.

14 For this part, see Schutz, Alfred and Luckmann, Thomas, The Structures of the Life-World (vol. 2) trans. Zaner, Richard M. and Parent, David J. (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 144–6Google Scholar.

15 European Communities − Measures Affecting Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, Appellate Body and the Panel Report, as modified, adopted on 13 February 1998, para. 208, available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/find_dispu_cases_e.htm.

16 Cf. Schutz and Luckmann, supra n. 14, at 233–35.

17 Cf. Meyer, John W., Boli, John, and Thomas, George, ‘Ontology and Rationalization in the Western Cultural Account’, in Thomas, George M. (ed.), Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1987), 12–37Google Scholar; Shiff Berman, Paul, ‘Global Legal Pluralism’, 80 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1155, 1173Google Scholar, n. 81 (2007); Schiff Berman, Paul, ‘Seeing Beyond the Limits of International Law’, 84 Tex. L. Rev. 1265 (2006)Google Scholar.

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19 Cf. Durkheim, Emile, Elementary Forms of Religious Life, trans. Ward Swain, Joseph (New York: Macmillan, 1915), 434–7Google Scholar.

20 Ibid. at 434–5.

21 Cf. Wendt, Alexander, Social Theory of International Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 163CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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24 Cf. Rathbun, Brian C., ‘Uncertain about Uncertainty: Understanding the Multiple Meanings of a Crucial Concept in International Relations Theory’, 51 Int'l Stud. Q 533, 551 (2007)Google Scholar.

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26 Appellate Body Report, United States – Subsidies on Upland Cotton, WT/DS267/AB/R (3 March 2005).

27 ‘Congress Votes to Preserve US Subsidies for Brazilian Cotton Farmers’, 15 Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, no. 6, 2011.

28 ‘ACP Countries Call For “Immediate Action” on Cotton Subsidies’, 15 Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, no. 3, 2011.

29 Regarding the discussion of rhetorical practices, see Kratochwil, Friedrich V., Rules, Norms, and Decisions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 209Google Scholar; Brunnée, Jutta and Toope, Stephen J., ‘International Law and Constructivism: Elements of an Interactional Theory of International Law’, 39 Col. J. Transnat'l L. 19, 40Google Scholarn. 82 (2000). Participants in the rhetorical practice ‘first assent to the language and values of the text itself, and use the language and values to inform their relations with one another’. Kastely, A. H., ‘Unification and Community: A Rhetorical Analysis of the United Nations Sales Convention’, 8 Nw. J. Int'l L. and Bus. 574 (1988)Google Scholar; see also, Zeller, Bruno, ‘The Language of International Trade Law: Problems or Salvation?’, 10 Int'l Trade and Bus. Rev. 179, 183Google Scholar (discussing a ‘rhetorical community’ involving the United Nations Convention on the International Sales of Goods (CISG)).

30 Vining, Joseph, ‘Fuller and Language’, in Witteveen, Willem J. and van der Burg, Wibren (eds.), Rediscovering Fuller: Essays on Implicit Law and Institutional Design (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999), 453, 457Google Scholar.

31 Wendt, supra n. 21, at 327. From a broad sociological standpoint, this intersubjective communicative process may also connote a ‘framing’ process in that each interlocutor tends to present relevant facts and arguments in a particular fashion and that a subsequent framing (reframing) is conditioned by the initial framing. See, generally, Goffman, Erving, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1974)Google Scholar.

32 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Truth and Method, trans. Weinsheimer, Joel and Marshall, Donald G., 2nd rev. edn (New York: Crossroad, 1989), 306Google Scholar.

33 Regarding this ‘relatedness’, see Kratochwil, supra n. 29 at123.

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37 Cf. Zucker, Lynne G., ‘The Role of Institutionalization in Cultural Persistence’, 42 Am. Soc. Rev. 726, 728 (1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Goodrich, supra n. 13, at 3.

39 WTO Agreement, art. XVI, ¶1.

40 Japan − Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, Appellate Body Report adopted on November 1 1996, WT/DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/R, WT/DS11/AB/R.

41 See, e.g., Mexico − Anti-Dumping Investigation of High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) from United States, Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by the United States, Appellate Body Report adopted on 21 November 2001, WT/DS132/AB/RW:

42 Cf. Farber, Daniel A., ‘The Supreme Court, the Law of Nations, and Citations of Foreign Law: The Lessons of History’, 95 Cal. L. Rev. 1335, 1336 (2007)Google Scholar (discussing ‘background legal principles'); Mitchell, Andrew D., Legal Principles in WTO Disputes (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Panizzon, Marion, ‘Good Faith, Fairness, and Due Process in WTO Dispute Settlement Practice’, in Chaisse, Julian and Balmell, Tiziano (eds.), Essays on the Future of the World Trade Organization (vol. 2, The WTO Judicial System – Contributions and Challenges) (Genève: Edis, 2008)Google Scholar.

43 Lowe, Vaughan, ‘The Politics of Law-Making: Are the Method and Character of Norm Creation Changing?’, in Byers, M. (ed.), The Role of Law in International Politics: Essays in International Relations and International Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 207, 212–21Google Scholar.

44 United States – Final Anti-Dumping Measures on Stainless Steel from Mexico, WT/DS344/AB/R, Appellate Body Report, 30 April 2008, para. 161.

45 Cf. Ventresca, Marc J. and Mohr, John W., ‘Archival Research Methods’, in Baum, Joel A.C. (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Organizations (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 805–28Google Scholar.

46 See, generally, Cho, Sungjoon, Free Markets and Social Regulation: A Reform Agenda of the Global Trading System (New York: Kluwer Law International, 2003)Google Scholar.

47 Cf. Park, Susan, ‘Norm Diffusion within International Organizations: A Case Study of the World Bank’, 8 J. Int'l R. and Dev. 111, 113 (2005)Google Scholar.

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49 Cf. Park, supra n. 47 (emphasizing NGO's active participation in the legal discourse within international organizations via ‘transnational advocacy networks’).

50 See Progressive Policy Institute, The WTO Has Handled 391 Disputes Since 1995, 22 April 2009.

51 I owe this insight to an anonymous referee.

52 United States − Taxes on Petroleum and Certain Imported Substances, Panel Report adopted on 17 June 1987, BISD 34S/136.

53 Brunnée and Toope, supra n. 29, at 48.

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55 Fiss, Owen M., ‘The Social and Political Foundations of Adjudication’, 6 L. and Human Behaviour 121, 122–24 (1982)Google Scholar.

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57 See Hongju Koh, Harold, ‘Transnational Public Law Litigation’, 100 Yale L. J. 2347, 2348–49, 2368 (1991)Google Scholar.

58 See Peters, Anne, ‘International Dispute Settlement: A Network of Cooperational Duties’, 14 Eur. J. Int'l L. 1, 2, 9, 15–16 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

59 See Lamy, Pascal, ‘The Place of the WTO and Its Law in the International Legal Order’, 17 Eur. J. Int'l L. 969 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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61 Chad P. Bown, ‘MFN and the Third Party Economic Interests of Developing Countries in GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement’, in Chantal Thomas and Trachtman, Joel P. (eds.), Developing Countries in the WTO Legal System (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 265CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 United States – Section 306 of the Trade Act of 1974 and Amendments Thereto, Request to Join Consultation (Communication from Canada), WT/DS200/8 (27 June 2000). Admittedly, commercial interests remain critical reasons behind third party interventions. See Bagwell, Kyle and Staiger, Robert W., ‘Multilateral Trade Negotiations, Bilateral Opportunism, and the Rules of GATT/WTO’, J. Int'l Econ. no. 1, 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 63 (implying that third parties aim to preserve their ‘own share of the dispute market’ through interventions); Chad Bown, ‘Participation in WTO Dispute Settlement: Complainants, Interested Parties and Free Riders’, World Bank Econ. Rev. no. 2, 2005, at 19 (observing that those countries having a considerable ‘market share’ in the disputed market tend to become third parties).

63 Cf. Bartels, Lorand, Procedural Aspects of Shared Responsibility in the WTO Dispute Settlement System (University of Cambridge Faculty of Law Research Paper No.27-2012, 2012)Google Scholar, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2181526## (raising various situations in which third parties may share elements of a primary actor's responsibility).

64 WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding, arts. 10-2, 10-3

65 McCall Smith, James, ‘WTO Dispute Settlement: The Politics of Procedure in Appellate Body Rulings’, 2 World Trade Rev., 75, 85 (2003)Google Scholar; see also Carmody, Chi, ‘Of Substantial Interest: Third Parties under GATT’, Mich. J. Int'l L. 18 (1997)Google Scholar.

66 Abram Chayes famously attributed this ‘demise of the bipolar structure’ to one of the characteristics of public law litigation as opposed to private law litigation. Chayes, Abram, ‘The Role of the Judge in Public Law Litigation’, 89 Harv. L. Rev. 1281, 1289 (1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also, Monaghan, Henry P., ‘Constitutional Litigation: The Who and When’, 82 Yale L. J. 1363, 1371 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (observing that constitutional litigation as ‘public actions’ might not involve private rights).

67 According to Amelia Porges, about a half of formal complaints launched in the WTO dispute settlement system reached a panel stage from 1996−2000, and only 35% of these complaints resulted in a panel ruling. In the domestic setting, only 10% of all suits reach a trial. Amelia Porges, ‘Settling WTO Disputes: What Do Litigation Models Tell Us?’, 19 Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol. 142 (2003).

68 Ibid. at 154.

69 Cf. Chayes, Abram and Handler Chayes, Antonia, The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 27Google Scholar.

70 WTO, Trade Policy Reviews: Ensuring Transparency, http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm11_e.htm.

71 See Scott, Joanne, The WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Commentary (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 4Google Scholar.

72 Ibid. at 57.

73 Wolfe, Robert, ‘See You in Geneva? Legal (Mis)Representations of the Trading System’, 11 Eur. J. Int'l Relations 339 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Gerard Ruggie, John, ‘What Makes the World Hang Together?: Neo-Utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge’, 52 Int'l Org. 855, 860 (1998)Google Scholar; See, generally, Weber, Max, The Methodology of the Social Sciences, eds. and trans. Shils, Edward A. and Finch, Henry A. (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949)Google Scholar.

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76 Chimni, B. S., ‘Co-Option and Resistance: Two Faces of Global Administrative Law’, 37 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. and Pol. 799, 806, 813–14 (2005)Google Scholar.

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80 Risse, Thomas, ‘Let's Argue!: Communicative Action in World Politics’, 54 Int'l Org. 1, 8 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (citing Jon Elster, The Market and the Forum: Three Varieties of Political Theory, in Jon, Elster and Aanund, Hylland (eds.), Foundations of Social Choice Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 1–18)Google Scholar.

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82 Robert Echandi, ‘How to Successfully Manage Conflicts and Prevent Dispute Adjudication in International Trade’, 26 (ICTSD Issue Paper No. 11, 2013).

83 See, e.g., GATT art.XXII

84 See, e.g., WTO DSU, arts. 4.2, 4.6

85 WTO, Dispute Settlement System Training Module: Chapter 6, The Process − Stages in a Typical WTO Dispute Settlement Case, available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/disp_settlement_cbt_e/c6s2p1_e.htm.

86 See Davey, William J. and Porges, Amelia, ‘Performance of the System I: Consultations and Deterrence’, 32 Int'l Law 695, 705 (1998)Google Scholar.

87 Jon Elster, ‘Arguing and Bargaining in Two Constituent Assemblies’ (presentation, The Storrs Lectures, New Haven, CT, 1991), quoted in Habermas, supra n. 11.

88 Braithwaite, John and Drahos, Peter, Global Business Regulation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 196Google Scholar.

89 Shaffer, Gregory, ‘Power, Governance, and the WTO: A Comparative Institutional Approach’, in Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond (eds.), Power in Global Governance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 130–34Google Scholar.

90 Pascal Lamy, Director-General, WTO, ‘Changes in Trade Challenge How We Manage Trade Policies’, WTO News (16 March 2012), available at http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/sppl221_e.htm.

91 Finger, J. Michael et al. , Market Access Bargaining in the Uruguay Round: Rigid or Relaxed Reciprocity? 2–4 (World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper No. 2258, 1999)Google Scholar.

92 See Kono, ‘Optimal Obfuscation’, supra n. 3, at 371 (viewing that democracy reduces incentives to employ tariffs while increasing incentives to employ less transparent NTBs).

93 See, generally, World Trade Organization, 15 Years of the Information Technology Agreement: Trade, Innovation and Global Production Networks (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2012).

94 Ibid. at 27.

95 See Cho, Sungjoon and Kelly, Claire R., ‘Promises and Perils of New Global Governance: A Case of the G20’, 12 Chi. J. Int'l L. 491 (2012)Google Scholar.

96 Cf. Habermas, supra n. 11, at 166.

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98 DSU art. 3.7; Ceva, Emanuela and Fracasso, Andrea, ‘Seeking Mutual Understanding: A Discourse-Theoretical Analysis of the WTO Dispute Settlement System’, 9 World Trade Rev. 457, 476 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99 Cf. Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond, in Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond (eds.), Power in Global Governance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 13–17Google Scholar.

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101 Cf. Taylor, supra n. 9, at 60.

102 See, generally, Cho, Sungjoon, ‘Of the World Trade Court's Burden’, 20 Eur. J. Int'l L. 675 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Schmidt, Vivien A., The Futures of European Capitalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 See , Sungjoon Cho, ‘United States – Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC–Hormones’, 103 Am. J. Int'l L. 299 (2009)Google Scholar.

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106 WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Implementation Proposal under Paragraph 21: Proposal by Brazil, G/SPS/W/108 (22 June 2001).

107 WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Recommended Procedures for Implementing the Transparency Obligations of the SPS Agreement (Article 7): Revision, G/SPS/7/Rev.2 (2 April 2002).

108 See, generally, Sungjoon Cho, ‘From Control to Communication’, 44 Cornell J. Int'l L. 249.

109 WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Review of the Operation and Implementation of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, G/SPS/36, 11 July 2005.

110 See, generally, World Health Organization, Food Safety: Risk Communication, available at http://www.who.int/foodsafety/micro/riskcommunication/en/.

111 Panel Report, European Communities and its Member States − Tariff Treatment of Certain Information Technology Products, WT/DS375/R, Aug. 16, 2010.

112 See, e.g., WTO, Information Technology: Progress Reported on Expanding Product Coverage, 1 November 2012.

113 See Smith, Fiona, ‘Law, Language and International Trade Regulation in the WTO’, 63 Current Legal Problems 2010, 458 (Letsas, George and O'Cinneide, Colm eds., 2010)Google Scholar.

114 United States − Taxes on Petroleum and Certain Imported Substances, supra n. 52.

115 United States − Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, Panel Report adopted on 7 November 1989, B.I.S.D.36S/386, para. 5.11 (1989) [hereinafter Section 337].

116 Guzman and Simmons, supra n. 81, at S205.

117 ‘Governments Exploring How to Restart Doha Round Talks’, 10 Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, no. 28, 2006.

118 Busch and Reinhardt, supra n. 60, at 446.

119 William J. Davey, ‘The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism’, Illinois Public Law and Legal Theory Research Papers Series, no. 03-08 (University of Illinois, 2003), 15.

120 Busch and Reinhardt, supra n. 60, at 457.

121 Ibid. at 448.

122 See Cho, Sungjoon, ‘Doha's Development’, 25 Berkeley J. Int'l L. 165 (2007)Google Scholar.

123 Jonathan, Wheatley, ‘Brazil to Dispute US Subsidies’, Financial Times, 3 August 2008Google Scholar.

124 Ibid.

125 See Davey, William J., ‘WTO Dispute Settlement: Segregating the Useful Political Aspects and Avoiding “Over-Legalization”’, in New Directions in International Economic Law: Essays in Honor of John H. Jackson 295–56 (Bronckers, Marco and Quick, Reinhard eds., 2000)Google Scholar (prioritizing ‘consultation’ over adjudication in resolving politically sensitive disputes).

126 See Baldwin, Richard, ‘WTO agreement: The Bali Ribbon’, Vox (12 December 2013)Google Scholar.

127 The WTO Director-General Roberto Azevêdo also attributed the Bali success to a ‘collective awareness’ among WTO members that: ‘(1) the agreement being pursued was desirable for everyone and, above all, doable for everyone; (2) a positive outcome would not produce winners and losers, nor a North-South divide (both developed and developing countries would need to work for the agreement); (3) the multilateral trading system needs to be reinvigorated to benefit everyone, particularly the smallest countries and those with least capacity to manage the intricacies of large-scale trade negotiations'. WTO, WTO News, ‘“Bali Is Just the Start” –Azevêdo’ (6 January 2014), http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/spra_e/spra4_e.htm. However, as of 31 July 2014, the Protocol of Amendment for the WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement remains unadopted. See ‘WTO Trade Facilitation Deal in Limbo as Deadline Passes Without Resolution’, 18 Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, no. 28 (31 July 2014), available at http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/bridges/news/wto-trade-facilitation-deal-in-limbo-as-deadline-passes-without-resolution.

128 See Uri Dadush, ‘How Can the World Trade Organization Stay Relevant?’, World Econ. Forum (14 January 2014), available at http://forumblog.org/2014/01/how-can-the-world-trade-organization-stay-relevant/.