Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T13:13:38.727Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Genetics of turkeys: Origin and development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

Edward G. Buss
Affiliation:
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Get access

Abstract

An account of the origin of turkeys is presented. The development of the turkey, including comparisons with other poultry species, is covered in a review of research published on turkey genetics and breeding from the 1920s to 1987. The subject has been divided into the following topics: gene mutations, cytogenetics, biochemical assessments, physiological assessments and parthenogenesis, strain and variety comparisons for body characteristics, body conformation, body weight, efficiency of feed utilization, egg production, semen production, sexual maturity, fertility, hatchability, egg weight, yield of edible meat, and phenotypic deformities. The review is in two parts. Part I, which follows, covers origin and development while Part II, covering economics and selection, will appear in the next issue, volume 45:2 (July, 1989)

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1989

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abroyan, L.O. and Chilingaryan, A.A. (1974) Chromosome complement of domestic fowls, turkeys and their hybrids. Biologicheskii Zhurnal Armenii, 27: 4751.Google Scholar
Abroyan, L.O. and Chilingaryan, A.A. (1974) Chromosome complement of domestic fowls, turkeys and their hybrids. In: Animal Breeding Abstracts 43: 484, No. 4269Google Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. (1939) Inherited non-barring in the flight feathers in turkeys. Journal of Heredity 30: 342348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. (1940) A recessive slate plumage color of turkeys. Journal of Heredity 31: 215217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. (1944) Inherited shortening of the bones in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 35: 295299CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. (1945) A triple-allele series and plumage color in turkeys. Genetics 30: 305322CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, V.S. (1950) Sex-linkage in the turkey. Journal of Heredity, 41: 205207CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, V.S. (1955) Inheritance of spotting in the plumage of turkeys. Journal of Heredity 46: 285288CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. and Abbott, U.K. (1961) Dominant sex-linked late feathering in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 52: 99104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. and Hinshaw, W.R. (1938) On the inheritance of pendulous crop in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). Poultry Science 17: 276285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. and Lorenz, F.W. (1955) Pheasant-turkey hybrids. Science 121: 307308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, V.S. and Lorenz, F.W. (1957) Hybrids of ring-necked pheasants, turkeys and domestic fowl. Poultry Science 36: 13231334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. and Pun, C.F. (1956) Crooked neck dwarf in the turkey. Journal of Experimental Zoology 131: 225237CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bacon, W.L., Brown, K.I. and Musser, M.A. (1973) Low density lipoproteins of chicken, turkey and quail egg yolk. Poultry Science 52: 17411744CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacon, W.L., Nestor, K.E. and Musser, M.A. (1973) Relative concentration and plasma content of yolk lipoprotein precursor in three lines of turkeys. Poultry Science 52: 11851187CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacon, W.L., Nestor, K.E. and Renner, P.A. (1972) Further studies on ovarian follicular development in egg and meat type turkeys. Poultry Science 51: 398401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bair, C.W. and Marion, W.M. (1978) Yolk cholesterol in eggs from various avian species. Poultry Science 57: 12601265CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bammi, R.K., Shoffner, R.N. and Haiden, G.J. (1966) Sex chromosomes in the germ cells of the chicken, turkey, and Japanese quail. Poultry Science 45: 424426CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barraud, C. (1958) On a case of hybridization between the turkey and the guinea fowl. Doctoral thesis, Veterinary Faculty Medicine, University of Paris, pp. 159.Google Scholar
Barraud, C. (1958) On a case of hybridization between the turkey and the guinea fowl. In: Animal Breeding Abstracts 27: 101, No. 470Google Scholar
Baumgartner, J., Illes, V., Saulic, J. and Murawska, J. (1983) Attempts to obtain intergeneric hybrids turkey × quail and guinea fowl × quail. Fifth International Symposium: Actual Problems of Avian Genetics. Piestany,Czechoslovakia.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, J., Illes, V., Saulic, J. and Murawska, J. (1983) Attempts to obtain intergeneric hybrids turkey × quail and guinea fowl × quail. In: Animal Breeding Abstracts 52: 160, No. 1206Google Scholar
Beck, J.R., Coleman, T.H. and Wolford, J.H. (1975) Disc electrophoresis of turkey serum alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes using polyacrylamide gel. 2. Turkey serum alkaline phosphatase zymograms. Poultry Science 54: 13661371CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, A.A. and Yamaga, K. (1976) Immunoglobins and antibody production in avian species. Comparative Immunology (Ed. Marchalonis, J.J.) (New York, John Wiley and Sons) pp. 335375Google Scholar
Bent, A.C. (1932) Life histories of North American gallinaceous birds; orders galliformes and columbiformes. United States National Museum Bulletin 162: 1490Google Scholar
Billingham, R.E., Poole, H.K. and Silvers, W.K. (1961) Transplantation immunity, immunological tolerance and chicken × turkey interspecific hybrids. Proceedings National Academy of Science 47: 10391043CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloom, S.E. (1974) Current knowledge about the avian W chromosome. Bioscience 24: 340344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, S.E., Buss, E.G. and Strother, G.K. (1970) Cytological and cytophotometric analysis of binucleated red blood cell mutants (bn) in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). Genetics 65: 5163CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bohren, B.B., Conrad, R.M. and Warren, D.C. (1943) A chemical and histological study of the feather pigments of the domestic fowl. American Naturalist 77: 481518CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolden, S.L., Krista, L.M., McDaniel, G.R., Miller, L.E. and Mora, E.C. (1983) Effects of exercise on aortic atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular variables among hyper- and hypotensive turkeys. Poultry Science 62: 12871293CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, K.I. and Nestor, K.E. (1973) Some physiological responses of turkeys selected for high and low- adrenal response to cold stress. Poultry Science 52: 19481954CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, K.E. Jr. (1980) Papers in avian paleontology honouring Hildegarde Howard. Contributions in Science, Number 330. (Ed. Campbell, K.E.), Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.Google Scholar
Carey, C., Rahn, H. and Parisi, P. (1980) Calories, water, lipid and yolk in avian eggs. The Condor 82: 335343CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ch'ng, L.K. and Benedict, A.A. (1981) The phylogenetic relationships in immunoglobulin allotypes and 7S immunoglobulin isotypes of chickens and other Phasianoids (turkey, pheasant, quail). Immunogenetics 12: 541554CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cherms, F.L. (1967) Elemental analysis of turkey semen. Poultry Science 46: 16051608CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, R.K. (1957) Congenital loco in turkeys. Journal of Heredity 48: 173175CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, T.H., Ringer, R.K., Mathey, W.J., Rood, K.G. and Pope, C.W. (1960) Vibrator, a recessive sex-linked mutation in turkeys. Journal of Heredity 51: 158160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creger, C.R. and Mack, R.W. (1973) Nucleic acid and nucleoprotein content of avian erythrocyte nuclei. Poultry Science 52: 18181822CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darcey, K.M., Buss, E.G., Bloom, S.E. and Olsen, M.W. (1971) A cytological study of early cell populations in developing parthenogenetic blastodiscs of the turkey. Genetics 69: 479489CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeFord, L.S., Buss, E.G., Todd, P. and Wood, J.C.S. (1979) Estimation of haploid cell content of parthenogenetic turkey embryos: A cytofluorometric study. Journal of Experimental Zoology 210: 301306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, T.M., Miller, D.H., Bradley, J.W. and Atkinson, R.L. (1969) Blood pressure and heart rate of turkeys, 17–21 months of age. Poultry Science 48: 14781481CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Froning, G.W., Daddario, J. and Hartung, T.E. (1968) colour and myoglobin concentration in turkey meat as affected by age, sex and strain. Poultry Science 47: 18271835CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaffney, L.J. (1975) Chondrodystrophy: An inherited lethal condition in turkey embryos. Journal of Heredity 66: 339343CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gasparski, J.M. and Stevens, R.W.C. (1972) Gammaglobulin allotypic specificities in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). Proceedings XII European Conference for Blood Groups, Biochemical Polymorphisms, (Ed. Kovacs, G. & Papp, M.) The Hague W. Dr. JunkGoogle Scholar
Grant, J.A., Sanders, B. and Hood, L. (1971) Partial amino acid sequences of chicken and turkey immunoglobulin light chains. Homology with mammalian > chains. Biochemistry 10: 31233132CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grunder, A.A. and Hollands, K.G. (1978) Inheritance of adenosine deaminase variants in chickens and turkeys. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9: 215222CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammer, B. (1966) The karyotypes of nine birds. Hereditas 55: 367385CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harada, K. and Buss, E.G. (1981a) Turkey–chicken hybrids: A cytological study of early development. Journal of Heredity 72: 264266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harada, K. and Buss, E.G. (1981b) The chromosomes of turkey embryos during early stages of parthenogenetic development. Genetics 98: 335345CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harper, J.A. and Parker, J.E. (1967) Hereditary muscular dystrophy in the domestic turkey. Journal of Heredity 58: 189193CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, J.A., Bernier, P.E. and Babcock, W.E. (1964) Skin melanization in the domestic turkey, Meleagris gallopavo. Poultry Science 43: 577583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, J.A., Bernier, P.E., Helfer, D.H. and Schmitz, J.A. (1975) Degenerative myopathy of the deep pectoral muscle in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 66: 362366CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, S., Godden, P.M.M. and Scanes, C.G. (1977) Plasma growth hormone concentration during growth in turkeys. British Poultry Science 18: 547551CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawes, R.O. and Buss, E.G. (1963) The association of a clubbed down condition with black down-color in the turkey. Poultry Science 42: 5058CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healey, W.V., Russell, P.S., Poole, H.K. and Olsen, M.W. (1962) A skin grafting analysis of fowl parthenogens: Evidence for a new type of genetic histocompatibility. Annals of New York Academy of Science 99: 698705CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutt, F.B. and Mueller, C.D. (1942) Sex-linked albinism in the turkey, Meleagris gallopavo. Journal of Heredity 33: 6977CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeler, C.E., Hoffman, E. and Shearer, R.K. (1949) Faded Bronze plumage: An autosomal mutant in the turkey. Poultry Science 28: 633635CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, J. (1986) Natural History of the Major Histocompatibility Complex, pp. 1–775, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New YorkGoogle Scholar
Kondo, K. (1947) On turkey–chicken hybrids with particular reference to the abnormal development of the embryo. Japanese Journal of Genetics 22: 16Google Scholar
Kosin, I.L. and Nagra, H. (1956) Frequency of abortive parthenogenesis in domestic turkey. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology 93: 605608CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosin, I.L. and Sato, J. (1960) A study of abnormalities in parthenogenetically developing germ discs and embryos of domestic turkey. Journal of Morphology 106: 263276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krishan, A. (1964) Microchromosomes in the spermatogenesis of the domestic turkey. Experimental Cell Research 33: 17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krishan, A. and Shoffner, R.N. (1966) Sex chromosomes in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus), turkey (Meleagra gallopavo) and the Chinese pheasant (Phasianus colchincus). Cytogenetics 5: 5363CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krista, L.M., Mora, E.C. and McDaniel, G.R. (1979a) A comparison between aortic lumen surfaces of hypertensive and hypotensive turkeys. Poultry Science 58: 738744CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krista, L.M., Waible, P.E., Sautter, J.H. and Shoffner, R.N. (1969) Aortic rupture, body weight and blood pressure in the turkey as influenced by strain, dietary fat, Beta-aminopropionitrile fumarate and diethylstilbesterol. Poultry Science 48: 19541960CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krista, L.M., Waible, P.E., Shoffner, R.N. and Sautter, J.H. (1970a) A study of aortic rupture and performance as influenced by selection for hypertension and hypotension in the turkey. Poultry Science 49: 405411CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krista, L.M., Lisano, M.E., McDaniel, G.R. and Mora, E.C. (1979b) Plasma corticosterone values in genetic hypertensive and hypotensive strains of turkeys. Poultry Science 58: 252254CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krista, L.M., Jackson, S., Mora, E.C., McDaniel, G.R. and Patterson, R.M. (1978) Blood plasma constituents in 14-week old hypertensive and hypotensive strains of turkeys. Poultry Science 57: 10221026CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krista, L.M., McDaniel, G.R., Mora, E.C., Patterson, R. and Whitesides, J.F. (1987) Histological evaluation of the vascular system for the severity of atherosclerosis in hyper– and hypotensive male and female turkeys: Comparison between young and aged turkeys. Poultry Science 66: 10331044CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krista, L.M., Jankus, E.F., Waible, P.E., Sautter, J.H., Shoffner, R.N. and Quarfoth, G.J. (1970b) Comparison of electrocardiograms of hypertensive and hypotensive male turkeys. Poultry Science 49: 700703CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubo, R.T. and Benedict, A.A. (1969) Comparison of various avian and mammalian IgG immunoglobulin for salt-induced aggregation. Journal of Immunology 103: 10221028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kulenkamp, A.W., Coleman, T.H. and Peterson, R.A. (1968) Some comparisons of “vibrator” and “normal” turkeys. Poultry Science 47: 14591463CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, P.E. and Wisehart, G.J. (1984) Comparative physiology of turkey and fowl semen. In: Reproductive Biology of Poultry. Poultry Science Symposium Number Seventeen, (Ed. Cunningham, F.J., Lake, P.E., and Hewitt, D.), pp. 151160. British Poultry Science, LtdGoogle Scholar
Lange, A. and Buss, E.G. (1984) A comparison of bone length and bone weight with embryo weight in chondrodystrophic and normal Beltsville Small White turkey embryos. Poultry Science 63: 578579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langford, B.B. and Howarth, B. Jr. (1974) A trypsin-like enzyme in acrosomal extracts of chicken, turkey and quail spermatozoa. Poultry Science 53: 834837CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latimer, H.B. (1927) Correlations of the weights and lengths of the body, systems, and organs of the turkey hen. The Anatomical Record 35: 365377CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latimer, H.B. and Rosenbaum, J.A. (1926) A quantitative study of the turkey hen. The Anatomical Record 34: 1523CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Law, G.R.J., Miller, W.J., Asmundson, V.S. and Stormont, C. (1965) Blood groups of turkeys. Genetics 51: 253261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leopold, A.S. (1948) The wild turkeys of Mexico. Transactions of the 13th North American Wildlife Conference (Ed. Quee, E.M.) Washington D.C., Wildlife Management Institute pp.393400Google Scholar
Lorenz, F.W., Asmundson, V.S. and Wilson, N.E. (1956) Turkey hybrids (Meleagris ocellate × Meleagris gallopavo). Journal of Heredity 47: 142146Google Scholar
Markert, C.L. (1984) Cloning Mammals: Current reality and future prospects. Theriogenology 21: 6067CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marone, L. and Salerno, A. (1978) Effect of crossbreeding at LDH loci in turkeys. Avicultura, 47: 5154.Google Scholar
Marone, L. and Salerno, A. (1978) Effect of crossbreeding at LDH loci in turkeys. In: Animal Breeding Abstracts 49: 280, No. 2323Google Scholar
Marsden, S.J. (1967) The Beltsville Small White turkey. World's Poultry Science Journal 23: 3242CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsden, S.J. and Knox, C.W. (1937) The breeding of turkeys, USDA Yearbook pp. 13501366Google Scholar
Marsden, S.J. and Olsen, M.W. (1974) Longevity in domestic turkey. World's Poultry Science Journal 30: 4245CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKusick, C.R. (1980) Three groups of turkeys from southwestern archeological sites. Los Angeles County Natural History Museum, Publication Number 330, pp. 225235Google Scholar
Miller, W.J. and Atherly, A.G. (1974) Immunogenetic transformation attempts in birds. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 5(1): 39.Google Scholar
Miller, W.J. and Atherly, A.G. (1974) Immunogenetic transformation attempts in birds. In: Proceedings 14th International Conference on Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical PolymorphismsGoogle Scholar
Moehring, J.M. and Stinebring, W.R. (1970) Examination of “species specificity” of avian interferons. Nature 226: 360361CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, R.T. (1938) A new race of wild turkey. Auk 55: 112115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moorhead, P.D. and Mohamed, Y.S. (1968) Case report: Pathologic and microbiologic studies of crooked-neck in a turkey flock. Avian Diseases 12: 476482CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mukherjee, T.K., Friars, G.W. and Waghorne, D. (1970) Estimated genetic parameters of certain blood constituents and economic traits of turkeys. Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology 12: 443453CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mun, A.M., Kosin, I.L. and Sato, I. (1959) Enhancement of growth of chicks host spleens following chorio–allantoic membrane grafts of homologous tissues. Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology 7: 512525Google ScholarPubMed
Musquera, S. and Planas, J. (1977) Haptoglobins in some galliformes birds. Poultry Science 56: 17771782CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naqi, S.A., Lewis, D.H. and Hall, C.F. (1970) Antigenic relationships between the egg white proteins and the serum proteins of chickens and turkeys. Poultry Science 49: 12481251CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestor, K.E. (1978) Hereditary chondrodystrophy in the turkey. Poultry Science 55: 577580CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nestor, K.E. and Renner, P.A. (1979) Genetics of growth and reproduction in the turkey. 6. Influence of plumage color pattern genes on mortality, body weight and egg and semen production. Poultry Science 58: 11371142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nestor, K.E., Bacon, W.L. and Renner, P.A. (1970) Ovarian follicular development in egg and meat type turkeys. Poultry Science, 49: 775780CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nolan, R.A., Brush, A.H., Arnheim, N. and Wilson, A.C. (1975) An inconsistency between protein resemblance and taxonomic resemblance: Immunological comparison of diverse proteins from gallinaceous bird. The Condor 77: 154159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. (1960a) Performance record of a parthenogenetic turkey male. Science 132: 1661CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1960b) Nine year summary of parthenogenesis in turkeys. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology, 105: 279287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1960c) Turkey-chicken hybrids. Journal of Heredity 51: 6973CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. (1962) Polyembryony in unfertilized turkey eggs. Journal of heredity 53: 125129CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1965) Twelve year summary of selection for parthenogenesis in Beltsville Small White turkeys. British Poultry Science 6: 16CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1966) Segregation and replication of chromosomes in turkey parthenogenesis. Nature (London) 212: 435436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1967) Early development of unfertilized turkey and chickens eggs. World's Poultry Science Journal 23: 242245CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. (1968) Changes in level of parthenogenetic development in turkey eggs during two testing seasons. Poultry Science 47: 20152016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1969a) Relationship of turkey eggs showing parthenogenetic development to those containing embryos or hatching. Poultry Science 48: 13491351CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1969b) Potential uses of parthenogenetic development in turkeys. Journal of Heredity 60: 346348CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1972a) Further studies on hybridization of chickens and turkeys. Journal of Heredity 63: 264266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. (1972b) Influence of turkey sires and dams on the level of parthenogenesis in eggs of their daughters. Poultry Science 51: 20352039CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1974) Frequency and cytological aspects of diploid parthenogenesis in turkey eggs. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 44: 216221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. (1975) Avian parthenogenesis. Agricultural Research Service, ARS-NE-65, pp. 182. (United States Department of Agriculture)Google Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Buss, E.G. (1967) Role of genetic factors and fowl pox virus in parthenogenesis in turkey eggs. Genetics 56: 727732CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. and Buss, E.G. (1972) Segregation of two alleles for color of down in parthenogenetic and normal turkey embryos and poults. Genetics 72: 6975CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1953) Embryonic development in turkey eggs laid 60–224 days following removal of males. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 82: 638641CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1954a) Natural parthenogenesis in turkey eggs. Science 120: 545546CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1954b) Development in unfertilized turkey eggs. Journal of Experimental Zoology 126: 337347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1956) Parthenogenesis in eggs of Beltsville Small White turkeys. Poultry Science 35: 674682CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1968) Incidence of parthenogenesis in eggs of various strains and varieties of domestic turkeys, Meleagris gallopavo. Poultry Science 47: 10301032CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Opel, H. (1973) A comparison of survival in hypohysectomized chicken and turkey hens. Poultry Science 52: 23452347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, R.A., Ringer, R.K. and Coleman, T.H. (1963) A study of the central nervous system of “vibrator” turkeys. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin 46: 119123Google Scholar
Poole, H.K. (1959) The mitotic chromosomes of parthenogenetic and normal turkeys. Journal of Heredity 50: 150154CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, H.K. (1963) Observations on the chromosomes of turkey-chicken hybrids. Journal of Heredity 54: 101102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poole, H.K. (1965) Further evidence of heterozygosity in parthenogenetic turkeys. Nature 206: 324CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poole, H.K. and Olsen, M.W. (1957) The sex of parthenogenetic turkey embryos. Journal of Heredity 48: 217218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, H.K. and Marsden, S.J. (1961) An autosomal naked mutation and associated polydactylism in Beltsville Small White turkeys. Journal of Heredity 52: 183185CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, H.K., Healey, W.V., Russell, P.S. and Olsen, M.W. (1963) Evidence of heterozygosity in parthenogenetic turkeys from homograft responses. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 113: 503505CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proudman, J.A. and Wentworth, B.C. (1980) Ontogenesis of plasma growth hormone in large and midget white strains of turkeys. Poultry Science 59: 906913CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purchase, H.G. (1986) Future applications of biotechnology in poultry. Avian Diseases 30: 4759CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinteros, I.R., Stevens, R.W.C., Stormont, C. and Asmundson, V.S. (1964) Albumin phenotypes in turkeys. Genetics 50: 579582CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rea, A.M. (1980) Late pleistocene and holocene turkeys in the Southwest. Los Angeles County Natural History Museum, Publication No. 330: 209224Google Scholar
Robel, E.J. (1983) The effect of age of breeder hen on the levels of vitamins and minerals in turkey eggs. Poultry Science 62: 17511756CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, W.R.B., Bohren, B.B. and Warren, D.C. (1943) The inheritance of plumage color in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 34: 246256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryle, M. and Simonsen, M. (1956) Attempts at hybridization of chickens and turkeys which are tolerant of each others antigens. Nature (London) 177: 437438CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarvella, P. (1974) Testes structure in normal and parthenogenetic turkeys. Journal of Heredity 65: 287290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sato, I. and Kosin, I.L. (1960) A cytological study of the parthenogenetically developing turkey germ discs and embryos. Cytologia (Tokyo) 25: 256266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savage, T.F. and Harper, J.A. (1985) Ring lethal: An early embryonic failure in Medium White turkeys. Journal of Heredity 76: 474476CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savage, T.F. and Harper, J.A. (1986) Parthenogenesis in Medium White turkeys selected for low and high semen ejaculate volumes. Poultry Science 65: 401402CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savage, T.E., Wallner-Pendleton, E. and Harper, J.A. (1986) Swollen down plumules, an autosomal recessive lethal in turkeys. Poultry Science 65: 823828CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlager, G. (1972) Spontaneous hypertension in laboratory animals. A review of the genetic implications. Journal of Heredity 63: 3538CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnell, G.D. and Wood, D.S. (1976) More on chicken–turkey–pheasant resemblances. The Condor 78: 550553CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schom, C.B., Krueger, W.F. and Atkinson, R.L. (1982) The relationship of parthenogenetic development in Broad Breasted White turkey eggs to level of production and environmental factors. Poultry Science 61: 21432148CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schorger, A.W. (1966) The Wild Turkey: Its History and Domestication, pp. 1625 (Norman, Oklahoma), University of Oklahoma PressGoogle Scholar
Selander, R.K. (1971) Systematics and speciation in birds. Avian Biology, 1: 57147. (Ed. King, J.R. and Parkes, K.C.) New York, Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Searle, B.M. and Bloom, S.E. (1974) Expression of the bn turkey mutant gene in a chicken parabiant. Proceedings XV World's Poultry Congress pp. 499–500Google Scholar
Searle, B.M. and Bloom, S.E. (1979) Influence of the bn on mitosis of immature red blood cells in turkeys. Journal of Heredity 70: 155160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, S., Bacon, W.L., Vasilatos-Younken, R. and Nestor, K.E. (1987) Pulsatile secretion pattern of growth hormone in turkeys: Effects of age and sex. General Comparative Endocrinology 68: 331338CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheldon, B.L. (1980) Perspectives for poultry genetics in the age of molecular biology. World's Poultry Science Journal 36: 143173CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shoffner, R.N., Krista, L.M., Waible, P.E. and Quarfoth, G.J. (1971) Strain crosses within and between lines of turkeys selected for high and low blood pressure. Poultry Science 50: 342345CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shoffner, R.N., Krishan, A., Haiden, G.J., Bammi, R.K. and Otis, J.S. (1967) Avian chromosome methodology. Poultry Science 46: 333344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sibley, C.G. and Ahlquist, J.E. (1972) A comparative study of the egg white problems on non-passerine birds. Peabody Museum of Natural History Bulletin 39: 1276 (New Haven, Conneticut, Yale University)Google Scholar
Smith, J.C. and Smyth, J.R. Jr. (1970) Knobby, a semi lethal mutation resulting in defective down in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 61: 119122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smyth, J.R. Jr. (1954) Hairy, a gene causing abnormal plumage in the turkey. Journal of Heredity 45: 196200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sokolow, N.N., Tiniakow, G.G. and Trofimov, J.E. (1936) On the morphology of the chromosomes in Gallinaceae. Cytologia 7: 466489CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sotherland, P.R. and Rahn, H. (1987) On the composition of bird eggs. The Condor 89: 4865CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, T., Sledge, C., Capra, J.D., Woods, R., Clem, W. and Hood, L. (1974) A sequence restriction in the variable region of immunoglobulin light chains from sharks, birds and mammals. Journal of Immunology 112: 633640CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steadman, D.W. (1980) A review of the osteology and paleontology of turkeys (Aves: Meleagridinae). Los Angeles County Natural History Museum Contribution to Science 330: 131207Google Scholar
Stenius, C., Christian, L.C. and Ohno, S. (1963) Comparative cytological study of Phasianus colchicus, Meleagris gallopavo and Gallus domesticus. Chromosoma 13: 515520CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, R.W.C. (1963) Immunogenetic studies of the red cells of turkey–chicken hybrids. Poultry Science 42: 686691CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, R.W.C. (1966) The effect of blood group heterozygosity on fertility and hatchability of turkey eggs. Proceedings X European Conference on Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Polymorphisms pp. 245–248Google Scholar
Stevens, R.W.C. and Asmundson, V.S. (1967) Further studies of blood groups in turkeys. Poultry Science 46: 963967CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, R.W.C. and Asmundson, V.S. (1968) Test for association between blood groups and performance traits in turkeys. Poultry Science 47: 800806CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Storer, R.W. (1971) Classification of birds. Avian Biology 1: 118. (Ed. Farner, D.S. and King, J.R.) New York, Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Stout, J.T. (1982) H–Y (H–W) antigen studies with an immunological and electrophotetic investigation of genetic diversity in turkeys. Ph.D. Thesis (The Pennsylvania State University)Google Scholar
Stout, J.T. and Buss, E.G. (1979a) Identification of a 16–17 day lethal factor in a chondrodystrophic stock of turkeys. Journal of Heredity 70: 6264Google Scholar
Stout, J.T. and Buss, E.G. (1979b) Initial identification of chondrodystrophy turkey embryos. Journal of Heredity 70: 139141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, T.W. and Al-Ubaidi, (1963) Linear growth and mineralization of bones in Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys. Poultry Science 42: 4649CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, N. and Kosin, I.L. (1965) An antigenic difference in turkeys following six generations of single-trait selection. Journal of Heredity 56: 99106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Krey, H.P., Leighton, A.T. Jr. and Siegel, P.B. (1974) Frequency and population patterns of uterovaginal sperm-host glands in turkeys. Poultry Science 53: 12331234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vasilatos–Younken, R., Bacon, W.L. and Nestor, K.E. (1988) Relationship of plasma growth hormone within and between turkey lines selected for differential growth rates. Poultry Science 67: 826834CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, O.S. (1931) The chromosomes of the domestic turkey. Biological Bulletin 61: 157164CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiley, W.H. (1977) Bibliography on the biology and production of turkeys. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland and Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina. Vol. 1: 1574; Vol. 2, Part 1:1–218, Part 2: 1–123Google Scholar
Wilhelm, L.A. and Robertson, E.I. (1941) Observations on the embryonic development of turkeys. Poultry Science 20: 425427CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, L.E. (1964) A recurrent color aberrancy in the wild turkey. Journal Wildlife Management 28: 148152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, L.E. (1967) Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) with supernumeracy leg spurs. Auk 84: 113114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, H.R., Miller, W.J. and Asmundson, V.S. (1961) Antibody production in pheasant-turkey hybrids. Poultry Science 40: 140144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yao, T.S. and Olsen, M.W. (1955) Microscopic observations of parthenogenetic embryonic tissues from virgin turkey eggs. Journal of Heredity 46: 133134CrossRefGoogle Scholar