Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T12:02:12.104Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Feathering in commercial poultry II. Factors influencing feather growth and feather loss

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

S. Leeson  and
T. Walsh
S. Leeson*
Affiliation:
Department of Animal & Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, OntarioCanadaN1G 2W1
T. Walsh
Affiliation:
Novus International, 530 Maryville Ctr. Drive, St. Louis, MO 63141USA
*
*Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

In commercial production, there is often concern about the quantity and/or quality of feathering in both broilers and layers. For broilers, the concern is adequacy of protective feather cover, while in layers it is usually the necessary degree of feathering needed to optimise feed efficiency. Feather development is under the control of hormones such as thyroxine and oestrogen and indirectly by testosterone. Environmental or nutritional status that influences such hormonal output will indirectly affect feathering. In broilers, rate of feathering is influenced by genetics, since some 20 years ago there was a conscious decision to introduce slow (K) vs. fast (k) feathering as a means of sexing day-old chicks. With the relative “immaturity” of modern broilers, these genes influence feather cover well into the production cycle. In White Leghorn crosses, initial problems with apparent Leukosis susceptibility of the progeny of slow feathering dams had to be overcome by eradication of Leukosis before feather sexing could be generally introduced. Nutrition can influence rate of feathering as well as feather structure, colour and moulting. Amino acid balance and especially deficiencies of TSAA and branched chain amino acids will influence feathering in young birds. Deficiency of vitamins and certain trace minerals also induce characteristic feather abnormalities, as does the presence of dietary mycotoxins. A number of viruses, bacteria and mycoplasma can infect the feather follicle and so influence feather development. Feather pecking and feather licking are behavioural abnormalities, although these conditions can be induced by changes in environmental conditions or nutritional adequacy of the diet.

Keywords

feathersbroilerslayersgeneticsnutritionenvironment
Type
Reviews
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 60 , Issue 1 , March 2004 , pp. 52 - 63
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J.O. and Warnick, R.E. (1967) Gross abnormalities of chicks fed amino acid deficient diets. Poultry Sci. 46: 856–862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, D.H. and Molitoris, B.A. (1975) Lack of response to supplemental tin, vanadium, chromium and nickel when added to a purified crystalline amino acid diet for chicks. Poultry Sci. 54: 925–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bitgood, J.J., Klorpes, C.A. and Arlas, J.A. (1987) Tardy feathering locus located on chromosome I in the chicken. J. Heredity 78: 329–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradbury, J.M. and Kelly, D.F. (1991) Mycoplasma iowae infection in broiler breeders. Avian Path. 20: 67–78.Google Scholar
Cahaner, A., Yunis, R. and Deeb, N. (1994) In: Genetics of feathering and heat tolerance in broilers. Proc. 9th European Poultry Conf.Glasgow, U.K. Vol. II p 67–70.Google Scholar
Chambers, J.R., Smith, E.J., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1994) Sex-linked feathering in chickens: A review. Poultry Sci. Rev. 5: 97–116.Google Scholar
Champe, K.A. and Maurice, D.V. (1984) Plasma sulfa AA in the domestic hen following molt induced by low sodium diet. Nutr Rep. Int. 30: 965.Google Scholar
Charles, O.W. and Kiker, J. (1974) The nutritional aspects of feathering dermatitis syndrome in broilers. Poultry Sci. 53: 1634.Google Scholar
Cook, M.E., Sunde, M.L., Stahl, J.L. and Hansen, L.E. (1984) Zinc deficiency in pheasant chicks fed practical diets. Avian Dis. 28: 1102–1109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daghir, N.J. and Balloun, S.L. (1963) Evaluation of the effects of breed on vitamin B6, requirements of chicks. J. Nutr. 79: 279–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damron, B.L., Harms, R.H., Arafa, A.S. and Janky, D.M. (1977) The effects of dietary lasalocid or monensin in the presence of roxarsone and graded methionine levels on broiler performance and processing characteristics. Poultry Sci. 56: 1487–1491.Google Scholar
Diallo, I.S., Mackenzie, M.A., Spradbrow, P.B. and Robinson, W.F. (1998) Field isolates of fowlpox virus contaminated with reticuloendothelial virus. Avian Path. 27: 60–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dufour, L., Sander, J.E., Wyatt, R.D., Rowland, G.N. and Page, R.K. (1992) Experimental exposure of broiler chickens to boric acid to assess clinical signs and lesions of toxicosis. Avian Dis. 36: 1007–1011.Google Scholar
Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1986) Feather weight of early aid late feathering adult broilers. Poultry Sci. 65: 1863–1865.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farran, M.T. and Thomas, O.P. (1992) Valine Deficiency I. The effect of feeding a valine deficient diet during the starter period on performance and feather structure of male broiler chicks. Poultry Sci. 71: 1879–1884.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, H.L. and Wilke, H.L. (1942) Dietary factors affecting feather growth. Poultry Sci. 21: 540–547.Google Scholar
Geraert, P.A., Padilha, J.C.F. and Guillaumin, S. (1996) Metabolic and endocrine changes induced by chronic heat exposure in broiler chickens: Growth performance, body on and energy retention. Br. J. Nutr. 75: 195–204.Google ScholarPubMed
Grau, C.R., Rowdybush, T.E., Vohra, P., Kratzer, F.H., Yang, M. and Nearenberg, D. (1989) Obscure relations of feather melanization and avian nutrition. Wld. Poultry Sci. J. 45: 241–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagger, C. (1993) Phenotypic genetic correlations among feather scores, income minus food cost and food conversion ratio in laying hens. Br. Poultry Sci. 34: 425–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, D.L., Garwood, V.A., Lowe, P.C., Hester, P.Y., Crittendon, L.B. and Fadly, A.M. (1984) Influence of sex-linked feathering genotypes of parents and progeny upon lymphoid leucosis virus infection status and egg production. Poultry Sci. 63: 401–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hegsted, D.M., Briggs, G.M., Elvehjem, C.A. and Hart, E.B. (1941) The role of arginine and glycine in chick nutrition. J. Biol. Chem. 140: 191–200.Google Scholar
Hughes, B.O. and Duncan, I.J.H. (1972) The influence of strain and environmental factors upon feather picking and cannibalism in fowls. Br. Poultry Sci. 13: 525–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, B.O. (1980) Feather damage in hens caged individually. Br. Poultry Sci. 21: 149–154.Google Scholar
Hunton, P. (1985) What price feathers? Technical Newsletter. O.E.P.M.B. March. Toronto, Ont.Google Scholar
Kiker, J.T. and Sherwood, D.H. (1974) Barebacks in broiler type chickens. Poultry Sci. 53: 1639.Google Scholar
Kisary, J. (1985) Experimental infection of chicken embryos and daysld chickens with parvovirus of chicken origin. Avian Pathol. 14: 1–7.Google Scholar
Kjaer, J.B. and Sorensen, P. (1997) Feather pecking behavior in White Leghorns: A genetic study. Br. Poultry Sci. 38: 333–341.Google Scholar
Lee, B.D., Morrison, W.D. and Leeson, S. (1983) Effects of feather cover and insulative jackets on metabolic rate of laying hens. Poultry Sci. 62 1129–1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, H.Y. and Craig, J.V. (1991) Beaktrimming effects on behavior patterns, fearfulness, geathering and mortality among three stocks of WL pullets in cages and floor pens. Poultry Sci. 70: 211–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leeson, S. and Summers, J.D. (1983) Growth and carcass characteristics of broilers fed salinomycin in diets containing graded levels of methionine and energy. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 63: 409–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leeson, S. and Summers, J.D. (1997) In: Commercial Poultry Nutrition. Publ. Univ. Books, Guelph, Ontario.Google Scholar
Leeson, S. and Morrison, W.D. (1978) Effect of feather cover on feed efficiency in laying hens. Poultry Sci. 57: 1094–1096.Google Scholar
McCgibbon, W.H. (1977) A sex-linked mutation affecting rate of feathering in chickens. Poultry Sci. 56: 872–875.Google Scholar
Moran, E.T. (1984) Feathers and L-methionine substitutes. Feed Management. January p. 46.Google Scholar
Neressian, B.W., Goodwin, M.A., Kleven, S.H. and Pesti, D. (1985) Studies on orthoreoviruses isolated from young turkeys. I. Isolation and Characterization. Avian Dis. 29: 755–767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemiec, J., Swierczewska, E. and Scholtyssek, S. (1991) Effect of Ochratoxin A on broiler production traits. Wroclawiu-Weterynaria 49 191–1997.Google Scholar
Olgesbee, B.L. (1992) Hypothyroidism in a Scarlet Macaw. J. Amer Vet. Med. Assoc. 201: 1599–1601.Google Scholar
O'Neill, S.J.B., Balnave, D. and Jackson, N. (1971) The influence of feathering and environmental temperature on the heat production and efficiency of utilization of ME by the mature cockerel. J. Agric. Sci. 77:Google Scholar
Owings, W.T. and Balloun, S.L. (1959) Relation of arginine and lysine to feather tyrosinase activity. Poultry Sci. 38: 1285–1289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pal, S.K. and Singh, H. (1997) Inheritance of wing feather development rate in guinea fowl. Br. Poultry Sci. 38: 245–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkhurst, C., Hamilton, P.B. and Ademoyero, A.A. (1992) Abnormal feathering of chicks caused by scirpenol mycotoxins differing in degree of acetylation. Poultry Sci. 71: 833–837.Google Scholar
Patel, M.B., Bishawi, K.O., Naus, C.W. and McGinnis, J. (1980) Effect of drug additives and type of diet on methionine requirement for growth, feed efficiency and feathering of broilers reared in floor pens. Poultry Sci. 59: 2111–2120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, C.G. (1977) Involvement of molybdenum in feather growth. Br. Poultry Sci. 18: 427–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogin Pech-Waffenschmidt, E.Avidar, Y. and Horst, P. (1995) Metabolic and biochemical changes during heat stress in relation to the feathering degree of the domestic hen. Avian Path. 24: 33–44.Google Scholar
Penz, A.M., Kratzer, F.H. and Rogers, Q.R. (1984) Effect of excess leucine on feather structure and feather composition in the chick. Nutr. Rep. Int. 29: 991–995.Google Scholar
Pethes, G., Szelenyi, Z. and Peczely, P. (1982) Changes in the plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and sexual steroids during forced molt of male and female domestic chickens. Acta Vet Acad. Sci. Hungaricae 30: 193–201.Google Scholar
Richards, S.A. (1977) The influence of loss of plumage on temperature regulation in laying hens. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 89: 393–398.Google Scholar
Ritchie, B.W., Niagro, F.D., Lukert, P.D., Steffens, W.L. and Latimer, K.S. (1989) Characterization of a new virus from cockatoos with psittacine beak and feather disease. Virology 117: 83–88.Google Scholar
Robel, E.J. (1977) A feather abnormality in chicks fed diets deficient in certain amino acids. Poultry Sci. 56: 1968–1971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberger, J.K. (1983) Characterization of reoviruses associated with a runting syndrome in chickens. In: Disease Prevention and Control in Poultry Production. Sydney, Australia Symposium. Proceedings Series #66.Google Scholar
Sanders, B.G., Brown, B.G. and Couch, J.R. (1950) A feathering syndrome in chicks after feeding optimal levels of lysine in the absence of arginine. Proc. SOC. Exp. Biol. Med. 74: 114–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, M.L., Holm, E.R. and Reynolds, R.E. (1959) Studies on niacin,.riboflavin, choline, manganese and zinc requirements of young ring-necked pheasants for growth, feathering and prevention of leg disorders. Poultry Sci. 38: 1344–1350.Google Scholar
Siegel, P.B., Gross, W.D. and Dunnington, E.A. (1989) Effects of dietary corticosterone in young Leghorn and meat-type cockerels. Br. Poultry Sci. 30: 185–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slaugh, B.T., Johnston, N.P., Flinders, J.T. and Bramwell, R.K. (1990) Effect of light regime on welfare and growth of pheasants. Animal Technology 41: 103–115.Google Scholar
Smyth, J.R. (1990) Genetics of plumage, skin and eye pigmentation in chickens. In: Poultry Breeding and Genetics. Ed. Crawford, . Publ. Elsevier. N.Y.Google Scholar
Somes, J.R. (1969) Delayed feathering, a third allele at the K locus of the domestic fowl. J. Hered. 60: 281–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, R.I.C. (1971) Integumentary System. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl. Ed. Bell, and Freeman, . Publ. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Summers, J.D., Leeson, S. and Ferguson, A.E. (1978) Performance and leg condition of caged and floor reared broilers fed diets deficient in selected vitamins and minerals. Poultry Sci. 57: 506–512.Google Scholar
Sunde, M.L. (1972) Zinc requirements for normal feathering of commercial Leghorn-type pullets. Poultry Sci. 51: 1353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplee, W.C. (1966) Feather abnormality in poults fed a diet deficient in vitamin E and selenium. Poultry Sci. 45: 852–854.Google Scholar
Supplee, W.C., Combs, G.F. and Blamberg, D.L. (1958) Zinc and potassium effects on bone formation, feathering and growth of pullets. Poultry Sci. 37: 63–67.Google Scholar
Takehara, K., Hyakutake, K., Imamura, T., Mutols, K. and Yoshimura, M. (1994) Isolation, identification and plaque titration of parvovirus from Muscovy ducks in Japan. Avian Dis. 38: 810–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, T.G. (1967) A characteristic feather abnormality in chicks. Poultry Sci. 36: 315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsiagbe, V.K., Kraus, R.J., Benevenga, N.J., Harper, A.E. and Sunde, M.L. (1987) Identification of volatile sulfur derivatives released from feathers of chicks fed diets with various levels of sulfur containing amino acids. J. Nutr. 117: 1859–1865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tullet, S.G., Macleod, M.G. and Jewitt, T.R. (1980) The effects of partial defeathering on energy metabolism in the laying fowl. Br. Poultry Sci. 21: 261–265.Google Scholar
Twining, P.V., Thomas, O.P. and Bossard, E.H. (1976) The number of feathers on the litter; another criterion for evaluating the adequacy of broiler diets. Poultry Sci. 55: 1200–1207.Google Scholar
Urrutia, M.S., Crawford, R.D. and Classen, H.L. (1983) Dysplastic remiges, a genetic abnormality reducing feathering in the domestic fowl. J. Heredity 74: 101–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vohra, P. and Kratzer, F.H. (1957) The role of lysine in the growth and feather pigmentation of turkey poults. J. Nutr. 63: 471–476.Google Scholar
Vohra, P. and Kratzer, F.H. (1959a) Specificity of lysine in the growth of turkey poults and the prevention of feather pigmentation. Poultry Sci. 38: 280–281.Google Scholar
Wheeler, K.B. and Latshaw, T.D. (1981) Sulfur amino acid requirements and interactions in broilers during two growth periods. Poultry Sci. 60: 228–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitehead, C.C., Rennie, J.S., Mccormack, H.A. and Hocking, P.M. (1993) Defective down syndrome in chicks is not caused by riboflavin deficiency in breeders. Br. Poultry Sci. 34: 619–623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkening, M.C., Schweigert, B.S., Pearson, P.B. and Sherwood, R.M. (1947) Studies on the requirement of the chick for tryptophan. J. Nutr. 34: 701–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyatt, R.D., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1975) Altered feathering of chicks caused by T-2 toxin. Poultry Sci. 54: 1042–1045.Google Scholar
Yalcin, S., Seltar, P., Ozkan, S. and Cahaner, A. (1997) Comparative evaluation of three commercial broiler stocks in hot vs. temperate climates. Poultry Sci. 76: 921–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zakrzewska, E.I. and Savage, T.F. (1997) Inhibited feathering: A new dominant sex-linked gene in the turkey. J. Heredity 88: 238–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelenka, J., Kracmar, S. and Maly, S. (1992) Methianine digestibility in male and female chickens with varying rates of feathering. Fytotechnicka Rada. 9: 269.Google Scholar