¹ Naval doctrine is defined as propositions dealing with a navy on the nature of a future war, the effect of the nuclear revolution, the preconditions and conditions for victory in a future war, and the organizational structure of the armed forces.

² Also referred to as “interest groups.” Two kinds of interest groups have been identified in the Soviet system, those that are associated with institutions, or “institutional” groups, and those that cut across institutions, or “tendencies of articulation.” I have found that both are represented in this study of naval doctrine. For a methodological discussion on interest groups, see Skilling, H. Gordon and Griffiths, Franklyn, eds., Interest Groups in Soviet Politics (Princeton:Princeton University Press 1971Google Scholar), chaps. I, II, X, and XI.

³ This point counters an assertion made previously about the Western nature of Soviet naval doctrine. See Hudson, , “Soviet Naval Doctrine, 1953-1972,” in MccGwire, Michael, ed., Soviet Naval Developments: Capability and Context (New York:Praeger 1973), 288Google Scholar.

⁴ The identification of differing doctrinal views calls into question Raymond Garthoff's contention that there was an “absence of conflict over military strategic thinking or concepts” during this period. See Garthoff, Raymond L., Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age (New York:Praeger 1958), 37Google Scholar; emphasis in original.

⁵ “Speech by Comrade Malenkov, G. M.,” Pravda, March 13, 1954Google Scholar, as translated in Current Digest of the Soviet Press, vi (April 28, 1954), 8.

⁶ Basistyi, Admiral N., “Na strazhe morskikh rubezhei” [On Guard of the Sea Boundaries], Izvestiia, July 29, 1956, p. 3Google Scholar; Zhukov, Marshal G. K., “Rech’ tovarishcha G. K. Zhukova” [The Speech of Comrade G. K. Zhukov], Krasnaia zvezda, February 21, 1956, P. 3Google Scholar.

⁷ Gorshkov, Admiral S. G., “Na strazhe morskikh rubezhei Sovetskoi derzhavy,” [On Guard of the Soviet State's Sea Boundaries], Pravda, July 29, 1956, p. 3Google Scholar. Some of these vessels were believed to be obsolete; see Herrick, Robert W., Soviet Naval Strategy (Annapolis:U.S. Naval Institute 1968), 80Google Scholar.

⁸ Gorshkov, , “Razvitie Sovetskogo voennomorskogo iskusstva” [The Development of the Soviet Naval Art], Morskoi sbornik, No. 2 (February 1967), 19Google Scholar.

⁹ Herrick (fn. 7), 75–76.

¹⁰ “Den’ Voenno-Morskogo Flota” [Soviet Navy Day], Pravda, July 29, 1956, p. 1.

¹¹ “Nastoichivo ukrepliat' mogushchestvo Sovetskikh Vooruzhennykh Sil” [Persistently Fortify the Might of the Soviet Armed Forces], Krasnaia zvezda, November 12, 1954, p. 1.

¹² Fedorov, Colonel G., “O soderzhanii sovetskoi voennoi ideologii” [On the Content of Soviet Military Ideology], Krasnaia zvezda, March 22, 1957Google Scholar, P. 2.

¹³ Fedorov, , “O soderzhanii sovetskoi voennoi ideologii” [On the Content of Soviet Military Ideology], Krasnaia zvezda, March 22, 1964, pp. 2–4Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Korotkov, Colonel I., “Rol” praktiki v razvitii sovetskoi voennoi nauke” [The Role of Practice in the Development of Soviet Military Science], Krasnaia zvezda, August 29, 1956, p. 2Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Vasilevskii, , “Vooruzhennye sily Sovetskogo gosudarstva” [The Armed Forces of the Soviet Government], Izvestiia, February 23, 1956, p. 4Google Scholar.

¹⁶ See Kuznetsov, Admiral N. G., “Vernyi strazh morskikh rubezhei” [Faithful Guardian of the Sea Boundaries], Pravda, July 25, 1954, p. 3Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Gorshkov, , “Na strazhe bezopastnosti sotsialisticheskogo otechestva” [On Guard for the Security of the Socialist Fatherland], Sovetskii flot, February 23, 1956, p. 4Google Scholar. This and all following translations from Russian are by the author.

¹⁸ Ibid., 4.

¹⁹ Gorshkov, , “Vydaiushcheesia sobytie pervoi Russkoi revoliutsii” [The Outstanding Event of the First Russian Revolution], Krasnaia zvezda, June 26, 1955, p. 2Google Scholar.

²⁰ “Tiazhelaia promyshlennost'—osnova oboronosposobnosti Sovetskogo gosudarstva” [Heavy Industry—The Basis for the Defensive Capacity of the Soviet Government], Krasnaia zvezda, February 15, 1955, p. 1.

²¹ Herrick (fn. 7), 70; Kolkowicz, , The Soviet Military and the Communist Party (Princeton:Princeton University Press 1967), 355Google Scholar.

²² Kolkowicz (fn. 21), 84–86.

²³ “Nesokrushimaia sila lageria demokratii i sotsializma” [The Indestructible Strength of the Camp of Democracy and Socialism], Sovetskii flot, January 31, 1956, p. 1.

²⁴ Garthoff (fn. 4), 55–56. In the Army, there were several ranks higher than that of Admiral before the highest Army rank, Marshal of the Soviet Union. Promotion in the Navy skipped these intermediate ranks and went from Admiral to Admiral of the Fleet, which corresponded to Marshal of the Soviet Union.

²⁵ Gorshkov (fn. 8), 15–16; emphasis added.

²⁶ Fokin, , “Na strazhe morskikh rubezhei Sovetskogo gosudarstva” [On Guard of the Soviet Government's Sea Boundaries], Krasnaia zvezda, July 29, 1956, p. 3Google Scholar.

²⁷ Rotmistrov, , “Za tvorcheskuiu razrabotku voprosov sovetskoi voennoi nauki” [For a Creative Development of Questions of Soviet Military Science], Krasnaia zvezda, March 24, 1955, p. 2Google Scholar.

²⁸ Vladimirskii, , “Reaktivnoe oruzhie i vedenie boevykh deistvii na more” [Rocket Weapons and the Conduct of Battle Activity on the Sea], Sovetskii flot, September 21, 1956, p. 2Google Scholar.

²⁹ Glazov, Colonel V., “O reaktsionnoi sushchnosti teorii lokal'nykh voin” [On the Reactionary Nature of the Theory of Local Wars], Kommunist vooruzhennykh sil, No. 10 (May 1961), 59–66Google Scholar.

³⁰ Khrushchev, , “Razoruzhenie—put' k uprocheniu mira i obespecheniiu druzhby mezhdu narodom” [Disarmament—The Path Towards the Strengthening of Peace and Safeguarding of Friendship Between Peoples], Pravda, January 15, 1960, p. 3Google Scholar.

³¹ “Rech' tovarishcha N . S. Khrushcheva” [Speech of Comrade N. S. Khrushchev], Pravda, July 9, 1964, p. 2Google Scholar.

³² Malinovskii, , “45 let na strazhe sotsialisticheskoi Rodiny” [45 Years on Guard of the Socialist Homeland], Pravda, February 23, 1963, p. 2Google Scholar.

³³ Rotmistrov, , “Vliianie tankov na tempy nastupatel'nykh operatsii” [The Influence of Tanks on the Tempo of Offensive Operations], Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, No. 1 (January 1961), 17Google Scholar, on the role of tanks in warfare; Grechko, “Voennaia istoriia i sovremennost'” [Military History and the Present], Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, No. 2 (February 1961), 9, on the importance of historical experience in current doctrinal formulation; and Rokossovskii, “Vernyi strazh mira” [Faithful Guardian of Peace], Voennyi vestnik, No. 2 (February 1960), 10, on the importance of “all forces” in planning future battle operations.

³⁴ Gorshkov (fn. 8), 20.

³⁵ The best summary of Khrushchev's thinking on peaceful coexistence is contained in his “On Peaceful Coexistence,” Foreign Affairs, xxxviii (October 1959), 1–18Google Scholar.

³⁶ “Armiia, okhraniaiushchaia trud stroitelei kommunizma” [The Army, Protecting the Labor of the Builders of Communism], Pravda, February 23, 1960, p. 1Google Scholar.

³⁷ “V interesakh naroda” [In the Interests of the People], Sovetskii flot, September 30, 1959, p. 1. Sovetskii flot is the former official daily newspaper of the Soviet Navy. It was combined with Krasnaia zvezda, the Army-oriented official daily newspaper of the Soviet Ministry of Defense, late in 1960.

³⁸ In 1960, articles of this type increased markedly in frequency in Sovetskii flot.

³⁹ “Zabota o blage trudiashchikhsia” [Care of the Workers' Welfare], Sovetskii flot, May ii , 1958, p. 1.

⁴⁰ Bakaev, , “Kazhdyi mozhet vybrat' trud po dushe” [Everyone May Choose Work to His Liking], Sovetskii flot, February 11, 1960, p. 1Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Gorshkov, , “Nadezhnyi strazh bezopastnosti Rodiny” [The Reliable Guardian of the Security of the Homeland], Sovetskii flot, February 23, 1960, pp. 1–2Google Scholar.

⁴² See “Derzhat' vysokuiu boevuiu gotovnost'” [Maintain a High Battle Readiness], Sovetskii flot, May 14, 1960, p. 1Google Scholar.

⁴³ Gorshkov, , “Nadezhnyi strazh morskikh rubezhei SSSR” [Reliable Guardian of the U.S.S.R.'s Sea Boundaries], Kommunist vooruzhennykh sil, No. 13 (July 1961Google Scholar), 27; emphasis added.

⁴⁴ Even at the height of his embarrassment over this issue, Khrushchev called for “general and complete disarmament.” See the series of announcements in Sovetskii flot, June 4, 1960, p. 1Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Gorshkov, , “Voenno-Morskoi Flot nashei Rodiny” [Our Homeland's Navy], Kotmmunist vooruzhennykh sil, No. 13 (July 1963), 20Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Sokolovskii, Soviet Military Strategy, trans, by Dinerstein, Herbert, Goure, Leon, and Wolfe, Thomas (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall 1963)Google Scholar; see pp. 227–30 for the discussion of ground troops.

⁴⁷ Alafuzov, , “K vykhodu v svet truda Voennaia strategiia” [On the Appearance of the Work Military Strategy], Morskoi sbornik, No. 1 (January 1963), 88Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Wolfe, Thomas, Soviet Strategy at the Crossroads (Cambridge:Harvard University Press 1964), 36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁹ Gorshkov (fn. 8), 20.

⁵⁰ Reflective of this view in U.S. naval thinking is the contention that aircraft carriers and other types of surface vessels will continue to be critical for victory in war. See Admiral Thomas H. Moorer's testimony in U.S., Senate, Armed Services Committee, Authorization for Military Procurement, Research and Development, Fiscal Year 1971, and Reserve Strength, Part 2, 91st Cong., 2d sess. (1970), 1308.

⁵¹ See Kime's, Steve F. discussion of the various “levels” of possible Soviet military action, “The Nuclear Age and the Navies of the Superpowers,” unpub., presented at the Seminar on Soviet Naval Developments, Halifax (October 1973Google Scholar). Party views on wars at sea were expressed in many places. See, for example, “Voenno-Morskoi Flot SSSR” [The U.S.S.R.'s Navy], Kommunist vooruzhennykh sil, No. 13 (July 1968), 32Google Scholar.

⁵² See the pointed discussion in Lieutenant Volkov, Colonel A. and Zapara, Lieutenant Colonel N., “Nauchno-tekhnicheskaia revoliutsiia i voennoe delo” [The Scientific-Technological Revolution and Military Affairs], Kommunist vooruzhennykh sil, No. 2 (January 1971), 12Google Scholar.

⁵³ Grechko, , “Flot nashei Rodiny” [Our Homeland's Fleet], Morskoi sbornik, No. 7 (July 1971), 5Google Scholar; emphasis added.

⁵⁴ Malinovskii, “Velikaia pobeda” [A Great Victory], Pravda, May 9, 1966, p. 2; Grechko (fn. 33), 9.

⁵⁵ Sokolovskii's third edition of Military Strategy (1968) still mentioned the Navy last whenever it listed the armed forces together.

⁵⁶ For an organization chart of the current Soviet Ministry of Defense, see Scott, Colonel William F., USAF (Ret.), “Soviet Aerospace Forces and Doctrine,” Air Force Magazine, Vol. 58 (March 1975), 41Google Scholar. Dimitri F. Ustinov, a civilian appointed Minister of Defense in April 1976, received the title of general, an army rank, shortly after his appointment.

⁵⁷ Vigor, Peter, “The Soviet Understanding of the Concept of 'Command of the Sea' (Gospodstvo na more),” unpub., presented at the Seminar on Soviet Naval Developments, Halifax (October 1973), 26Google Scholar. A revised version is published in MccGvvire, Michael, Booth, Ken, and McDonnell, John, eds., Soviet Naval Policy: Objectives and Constraints (New York:Praeger 1975), 601Google Scholar–22. To add to Vigor's comments: the “political” naval officers often publish in the party-oriented Kommunist vooruzhennykh sil, the semimonthly theoretical and political journal of the Main Political Administration of the Army and Navy.

⁵⁸ Erickson, John, Soviet Military Power (London:Royal United Institute for Defence Studies 1971), 55Google Scholar; emphasis in original.

⁵⁹ For an argument taken from the history of Soviet doctrine, but with evident contemporary relevance, see Gorshkov's “Voenno-morskie floty v voinakh i v mirnoe vremia” [Navies in War and Peace], Morskoi sbornik, No. 8 (August 1972), 21.

⁶⁰ For a detailed discussion of “command of the seas,” see Brodie, Bernard, A Guide to Naval Strategy (newly rev. ed., New York:Praeger 1965Google Scholar), chap. IV.

⁶¹ Cable, , Gunboat Diplomacy: Political Applications of Limited Naval Force (New York:Praeger 1971), 134Google Scholar, 135.

⁶² Blechman, Barry M., The Changing Soviet Navy (Washington:Brookings Institution Press 1973), 22–23Google Scholar. For a first-rate discussion of definitional difficulties with “showing the flag” and other commonly used naval concepts, see Ken Booth, “Navies and Foreign Policy,” unpub., presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, St. Louis, Mo. (March 1974), 12–14. A revised version of this paper is to be published in late 1976 by Crane Russak Publishers, as Navies and Foreign Policy.

⁶³ Matsulenko, Major General V., “Lokal'nye voiny imperializma” [Local Wars of Imperialism], Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, No. 9 (September 1968), 38Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ International events and policy changes cannot have an immediate impact on the output of new or renovated naval vessels, due to the length of lead time involved in naval construction. See Michael MccGwire, “The Turning Points in Soviet Naval Policy,” in MccGwire (fn. 3) , 180.

⁶⁵ Zakharov and others, Istoriia voenno-morskogo iskusstva: uchebnik dlia vysshikh voenno-morskikh uchilishch [A History of the Naval Art: A Textbook for Advanced Naval Students] (Moscow: Voenizdat 1969); quotes from pp. 556, 559.

⁶⁶ “Rech' tovarishcha L. I. Brezhneva” [Comrade L. I. Brezhnev's Speech], Pravda, July 6, 1967, pp. 1–2.

⁶⁷ Gorshkov, , “Nash moguchii okeanskii flot” [Our Mighty Ocean Fleet], Pravda, July 30, 1967, p. 2Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ “Zaiavlenie TASS” [TASS Statement], Krasnaia zvezda, November 24, 1968, p. 3Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ See Bobkov, Commander I., “Russkie i sovetskie korabli v Sredizimnom more” [Russian and Soviet Vessels in the Mediterranean Sea], Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, No. 9 (September 1970), 47Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Gorshkov, “Na okeanskikh rubezhakh” [On the Ocean Boundaries], Pravda, July 28, 1968, p. 2.

⁷¹ For a discussion of current missions, see Weinland, Robert G., “The Changing Mission Structure of the Soviet Navy,” in MccGwire (fn. 3), 292–305Google Scholar.

⁷² The Soviet marine force numbers 17,000; the U.S. Marines, 197,000. International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance: 1975–1976 (London:I.I.S.S. 1975Google Scholar), 9, 6.

⁷³ MccGwire uses a lead time of between eight and twelve years (fn. 64), 180.

⁷⁴ Gorshkov, “Voenno-Morskie floty v voinakh i v mirnoe vremia” [Navies in War and Peace], began to appear in Morskoi sbornik, No. 2 (February 1972); it was continued in Nos. 3–6 and 8–12, and was completed in No. 2 (February 1973).

⁷⁵ Robert W. Herrick, “The Gorshkov Interpretation of Russian Naval History,” in MccGwire (fn. 3), 306–21; Robert G. Weinland, “Analysis of Admiral Gorshkov's ‘Navies in War and Peace,’” in MccGwire, Booth, and McDonnell (fn. 57), 547–72.

⁷⁶ Booth, Ken, The Military Instrument in Soviet Foreign Policy (London: Royal United Services Institute 1974), 23Google Scholar.