Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-bslzr Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2025-03-14T14:48:22.192Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 September 2020

Jean Lachapelle Open the ORCID record for Jean Lachapelle [Opens in a new window] ,
Steven Levitsky ,
Lucan A. Way  and
Adam E. Casey
Get access

Abstract

This article explores the causes of authoritarian durability. Why do some authoritarian regimes survive for decades, often despite severe crises, while others collapse quickly, even absent significant challenges? Based on an analysis of all authoritarian regimes between 1900 and 2015, the authors argue that regimes founded in violent social revolution are especially durable. Revolutionary regimes, such as those in Russia, China, Cuba, and Vietnam, endured for more than half a century in the face of strong external pressure, poor economic performance, and large-scale policy failures. The authors develop and test a theory that accounts for such durability using a novel data set of revolutionary regimes since 1900. The authors contend that autocracies that emerge out of violent social revolution tend to confront extraordinary military threats, which lead to the development of cohesive ruling parties and powerful and loyal security apparatuses, as well as to the destruction of alternative power centers. These characteristics account for revolutionary regimes’ unusual longevity.

Keywords

authoritarian durabilityauthoritarianismcomparative politicsregime changerevolution
Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 72 , Issue 4 , October 2020 , pp. 557 - 600
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abadie, Alberto, Diamond, Alexis, and Hainmueller, Jens. 2015. “Comparative Politics and the Synthetic Control Method.” American Journal of Political Science 59, no. 2: 495–510. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acharya, Avidit, Blackwell, Matthew, and Sen, Maya. 2016. “Explaining Causal Findings without Bias: Detecting and Assessing Direct Effects.” American Political Science Review 110, no. 3: 512–29. doi: 10.1017/S0003055416000216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albertus, Michael. 2015. Autocracy and Redistribution: The Politics of Land Reform. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albertus, Michael, and Menaldo, Victor. 2012. “Coercive Capacity and the Prospects for Democratization.” Comparative Politics 44, no. 2: 151–69. doi: 10.5129/001041512798838003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beissinger, Mark. 2014. “Contentious Collective Action and the Evolving Nation-State.” In Donatella Della, Porta and Dani, Mario, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Social Movements. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bellin, Eva. 2004. “The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Politics 36, no. 2: 139–57. doi: 10.2307/4150140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhard, Michael, Jung, Dong-Joon, Tzelgov, Eitan, Coppedge, Michael, and Lindberg, Staffan I.. 2017. “Making Embedded Knowledge Transparent: How the V-Dem Dataset Opens New Vistas in Civil Society Research.” Perspectives on Politics 15, no. 2: 342–60. doi: 10.1017/S1537592717000056.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolt, Jutta, Inklaar, Robert, de Jong, Herman, and van Zanden, Jan Luiten. 2018. “Rebasing ‘Maddison’: New Income Comparisons and the Shape of Long-Run Economic Development.” Maddison Project Working Paper 10. Maddison Project Database, v. 2018, University of Groningen. At https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/research, accessed June 29, 2020.Google Scholar
Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M., De Boef, Suzanna, and Joyce, Kyle A.. 2006. “Event Dependence and Heterogeneity in Duration Models: The Conditional Frailty Model.” Political Analysis 15, no. 3: 237–56. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpm013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Archie. 2009. The Rise and Fall of Communism. New York, N.Y.: Ecco.Google Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumberg, Daniel. 2001. Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce, Smith, Alastair, Siverson, Randolph M., and Morrow, James D.. 2003. The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cajina, Roberto J. 1997. Transición Política y Reconversion Militar en Nicaragua, 1990–1995. Managua, Nicaragua: CRIES.Google Scholar
Callahan, Mary Patricia. 2005. Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Casey, Adam E., Jean, Lachapelle, Steven, Levitsky, and Way, Lucan A.. 2020. “Replication files for: Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability.” Harvard Dataverse, V1. doi: 10.7910/DVN/OMDQI9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheibub, José Antonio, Gandhi, Jennifer, and Vreeland, James Raymond. 2010. “Democracy and Dictatorship Revisited.” Public Choice 143: 67–101. doi: 10.1007/s11127-009-9491-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorley, Katharine Campbell. 1943. Armies and the Art of Revolution. London, UK: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Colgan, Jeff D. 2013. Petro-Aggression: When Oil Causes War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppedge, Michael, Gerring, John, Knutsen, Carl Henrik, Lindberg, Staffan I., Teorell, Jan, Altman, David, Bernhard, Michael, Steven Fish, M., Glynn, Adam, Hicken, Allen, Lührmann, Anna, Marquardt, Kyle L., McMann, Kelly, Paxton, Pamela, Pemstein, Daniel, Seim, Brigitte, Sigman, Rachel, Skaaning, Svend-Erik, Staton, Jeffrey, Cornell, Agnes, Gastaldi, Lisa, Gjerløw, Haakon, Mechkova, Valeriya, von Römer, Johannes, Sundtröm, Aksel, Tzelgov, Eitan, Uberti, Luca, Wang, Yi-ting, Wig, Tore, and Ziblatt, Daniel. 2019. “V-Dem Codebook v9.” Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. Gothenburg, Sweden: University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute.Google Scholar
Correlates of War Project. Direct Contiguity Data, 1816-2016. Version 3.2.Google Scholar
Daniels, Robert Vincent. 1965. The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Del Aguila, Juan M. 1984. Cuba:Dilemmas of a Revolution. Boulder, Colo.: West-view Press.Google Scholar
Denitch, Bogdan. 1976. “Violence and Social Change in the Yugoslav Revolution: Lessons for the Third World?” Comparative Politics 8, no. 3: 465–78. doi: 10.2307/421408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domínguez, Jorge I. 1982. “Revolutionary Politics: The New Demands for Orderliness.” In Domínguez, Jorge I., ed., Cuba: Internal and International Affairs. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Derpanopoulos, George, Frantz, Erica, Geddes, Barbara, and Wright, Joseph. 2016. “Are Coups Good for Democracy?” Research and Politics: 1–7. doi: 10.1177/2053168016630837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duiker, William J. 1983. Vietnam:Nation in Revolution. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Duiker, William J. 2000. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. New York, N.Y.: Hyperion.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, S. N. 1992. “The Breakdown of Communist Regimes and Vicissitudes of Modernity.” Daedalus 121, no. 2: 21–41. At https://www.jstor.org/stable/20025431, accessed April 16, 2019.Google Scholar
Friedrich, Carl J., and Brzezinski, Zbigniew K.. 1965. Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2009. “Elections Under Authoritarianism.” Annual Review of Political Science 12: 403–22. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.060106.095434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2007. “Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats.” Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 11: 1279–301. doi: 10.1177/0010414007305817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 1999. “What Do We Know About Democratization after Twenty Years?” Annual Review of Political Science 2: 115–44. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Frantz, Erica. 2014. “Autocratic Breakdown and Regime Transitions: A New Data Set.” Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 2: 313–31. doi: 10.1017/S1537592714000851.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Frantz, Erica. 2017. “Autocratic Regime Features, Coding Rules, Version 1.0.” At https://sites.psu.edu/dictators/files/2017/10/GWF-Detailed-Code-book-23mkbfo.pdf, accessed July 20, 2020.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Frantz, Erica. 2018. How Dictatorships Work: Power, Personalization, and Collapse. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goemans, Henk E., Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Chiozza, Giacomo. 2009. “Introducing Archigos: A Dataset of Political Leaders.” Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 2: 269–83. doi: 10.1177/0022343308100719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstone, Jack A. 1991. Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Goldstone, Jack A. 2014. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, Jeff. 2001. No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greitens, Sheena Chestnut. 2016. Dictators and Their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gurr, Ted Robert. 1970. Why Men Rebel. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Gurr, Ted Robert. 1988. “War, Revolution, and the Growth of the Coercive State.” Comparative Political Studies 21, no. 1: 45–65. doi: 10.1177/0010414088021001003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert R.. 1997. “The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions.” Comparative Politics 29, no. 3: 263–83. doi: 10.2307/422121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halliday, Fred. 1999. Revolution and World Politics: The Rise and Fall of the Sixth Great Power. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, Stephen E. 2010. Post-Imperial Democracies: Ideology and Party Formation in Third Republic France, Weimar Germany, and Post-Soviet Russia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbert, Reginald. 1991. Albania’s National Liberation Struggle: The Bitter Victory. London, UK: Pinter Publishers.Google Scholar
Ho, Daniel E., Imai, Kosuke, King, Gary, and Stuart, Elizabeth A.. 2007. “Matching as Nonparametric Preprocessing for Reducing Model Dependence in Parametric Causal Inference.” Political Analysis 15, no. 3: 199–236. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpl013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofheinz, Roy. 1967. “The Autumn Harvest Insurrection.” China Quarterly 32: 37–87. doi: 10.1017/S0305741000047214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howell, Thomas A., and Rajasooria, Jeffrey P.. 1972. Ghana & Nkrumah. New York, N.Y.: Facts on File.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1968. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Iacus, Stefano M., Gary, King, and Porro, Gisueppe. 2012. “Casual Inference without Balance Checking: Coarsened Exact Matching.” Political Analysis 20, no. 1: 1–24. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpr013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, and Ratkovic, Marc. 2014. “Covariate Balancing Propensity Score.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Statistical Methodology) 76, no. 1: 243–63. doi: 10.1111/rssb.12027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jászi, Oszkár. 1969. Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Hungary. London, UK: P. S. King & Son.Google Scholar
Joffe, Ellis. 1965. Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949–1964. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Chalmers. 1982. Revolutionary Change. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Katzman, Kenneth. 1993. The Warriors of Islam:Iran’s Revolutionary Guard. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Honaker, James, Joseph, Anne, and Scheve, Kenneth. 2001. “Analyzing Incomplete Political Science Data: An Alternative Algorithm for Multiple Imputation.” American Political Science Review 95, no. 1: 49–69. doi: 10.1017/S0003055401000235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Gary, Lucas, Christopher, and Nielsen, Richard A.. 2017. “The Balance-Sample Size Frontier in Matching Methods for Causal Inference.” American Journal of Political Science 61, no. 2: 473–89. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klepak, Hal. 2012. Raúl Castro and Cuba: A Military Story. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave-MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, Amy. 1996. Spies Without Cloaks: The KGB’s Successors. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotkin, Stephen. 2014. Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928. New York, N.Y.: Penguin.Google Scholar
Lachapelle, Jean, Levitsky, Steven, Way, Lucan A., and Casey, Adam E.. 2020. “Supplementary material for: Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability.” doi: 10.1017/S0043887120000106.Google Scholar
Lall, Ranjit. 2016. “How Multiple Imputation Makes a Difference.” Political Analysis 24, no. 4: 414–33. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpw020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Terrence. 2014. Defect or Defend: Military Responses to Popular Protests in Authoritarian Asia. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google ScholarPubMed
LeoGrande, William M. 1978. “Civil-Military Relations in Cuba: Party Control and Political Socialization.” Studies in Comparative Communism 11, no. 3: 278–91. doi: 10.1016/0039-3592(78)90022-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A.. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A.. 2012. “Beyond Patronage: Violent Struggle, Ruling Party Cohesion, and Authoritarian Durability.” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 4: 869–89. doi: 10.1017/S1537592712002861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1959. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy.” American Political Science Review 53, no. 1: 69–105. doi: 10.2307/1951731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lueders, Hans, and Lust, Ellen. 2018. “Multiple Measurements, Elusive Agreement, and Unstable Outcomes in the Study of Regime Change.” Journal of Politics 80, no. 2: 736–41. doi: 10.1086/696864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons, Terrence. 2016. “The Importance of Winning: Victorious Insurgent Groups and Authoritarian Politics.” Comparative Politics 48, no. 2: 167–84. At https://www.jstor.org/stable/24886171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz, Chu, Jonathan, and Min, Eric. 2013. Autocracies of the World, 1950–2012 (version 1.0). Data Set. Stanford University, Center on Democracy, Developent and the Rule of Law. At https://cddrl.fsi.stanford.edu/research/autocracies_of_the_world_dataset/, accessed April 16, 2019.Google Scholar
Mahoney, James. 2001. “Path-Dependent Explanations of Regime Change: Central America in Comparative Perspective.” Studies in Comparative International Development 36, no. 1: 111–41. doi: 10.1007/bf02687587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mampilly, Zachariah Cherian. 2011. Rebel Rulers: Insurgent Governance and Civilian Life During War. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Zedong, Mao. [1927] 2003. “Mao Zedong’s Report on the Peasant Movement in Hunan, March 1927.” In Hanhimäki, Jussi M. and Arne Westad, Odd, eds., The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Margolin, Jean-Louis. 1999. “Vietnam and Laos: The Impasse of War Communism.” In Stéphan Courtois, Nicolas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartosek, and Jean-Louis Margolin, eds., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty G., and Marshall, Donna Ramsey. 2018. “Coups d’état events, 1946–2017.” Data Set, Integrated Network for Social Conflict Research, Center for Systemic Peace. At http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscrdata.html, accessed May 23, 2019.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty G., Ted Robert, Gurr, and Jaggers, Keith. 2018. “Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2017.” Version p4v2017. Codebook at http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/p4manualv2017.pdf, and database at http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/p4v2017.xls, accessed June 29, 2020.Google Scholar
Meng, Xiao-Li, and Rubin, Donald B.. 1992. “Performing Likelihood Ratio Tests with Multiply-Imputed Data Sets.” Biometrika 79, no. 1: 103–11. doi: 10.1093/biomet/79.1.103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moi’se, Edwin. 1983. Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Morgan, Stephen L., and Winship, Christopher. 2015. Counterfactuals and Causal Inference: Methods and Principles for Social Research Second Edition. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, Eric A. 1977. Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, Guillermo, and Schmitter, Philippe C.. 1986. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Pantsov, Alexander V., and Levine, Steven I.. 2012. Mao: The Real Story. New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, Thomas. 2014. “The Institutional Turn in Comparative Authoritarianism.” British Journal of Political Science 44, no. 3: 631–53. doi: 10.1017/S0007123413000021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perlmutter, Amos. 1977. The Military and Politics in Modern Times: On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Pike, Douglas. 1978. History of Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1976. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press.Google Scholar
Pike, Douglas. 1986. PAVN: People’s Army of Vietnam. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press.Google Scholar
Powell, Jonathan M., and Thyne, Clayton L.. 2011. “Global Instances of Coups from 1950 to 2010: A New Dataset.” Journal of Peace Research 48, no. 2: 249–59. doi: 10.1177/0022343310397436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, José Antonio, and Limongi, Fernando. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rees, E. A. 2000. “Review: The Great Terror: Suicide or Murder?” Russian Review 59, no. 3: 446–60. doi: 10.1111/0036-0341.00133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, Anthony. 1974. The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950. Victoria, Australia: Longman.Google Scholar
Ross, Michael L. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics 53, no. 3 (April): 325–61. doi: 10.1353/wp.2001.0011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Michael L., and Mahdavi, Paasha. 2015. “Oil and Gas Data, 1932–2014.” Harvard Dataverse, V2. doi: 10.7910/DVN/ZTPW0Y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Donald B. 1987. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarkees, Meredith R., and Wayman, Frank. 2010. “Resort to War: 1816–2007.” Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schapiro, Leonard. 1971. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union. New York, N.Y.: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Selznick, Philip. 1952. The Organizational Weapon: A Study of Bolshevik Strategy and Tactics. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Singer, J. David. 1988. “Reconstructing the Correlates of War Dataset on Material Capabilities of States, 1816–1985.” International Interactions 14, no. 2: 115–32. doi: 10.1080/03050628808434695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1988. “Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization.” World Politics 40, no. 2 (January): 147–68. doi: 10.2307/2010360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2009. “Revolutions, Crackdowns, and Quiescence: Communal Elites and Democratic Mobilization in Southeast Asia.” American Journal of Sociology 115, no. 1: 203–54. doi: 10.1086/597796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan, and Fenner, Sofia. 2011. “State Power and Staying Power: Infrastructural Mechanisms and Authoritarian Durability.” Journal of International Affairs 65, no. 1: 15–29. At https://www.jstor.org/stable/24388179, accessed June 11, 2020.Google Scholar
Slater, Dan, and Rush Smith, Nicholas. 2016. “The Power of Counterrevolution: Elitist Origins of Political Order in Postcolonial Asia and Africa.” American Journal of Sociology 121, no. 5: 1472–516. doi: 10.1086/684199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Benjamin. 2005. “Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and Persistence under Single-Party Rule.” World Politics 57, no. 3 (April): 421–51. doi: 10.1353/wp.2006.0004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Benjamin. 2007. Hard Times in the Land of Plenty: Oil Politics in Iran and Indonesia. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Stinnett, Douglas M., Jaroslav, Tir, Philip, Schafer, Diehl, Paul F., and Gochman, Charles. 2002. “The Correlates of War (COW) Project Direct Contiguity Data, Version 3.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 19, no. 2: 59–67. doi: 10.1177/073889420201900203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svolik, Milan W. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweig, Julia A. 2007. “Fidel’s Final Victory.” Foreign Affairs 86, no. 1: 39–56. At www.jstor.org/stable/20032210, accessed June 11, 2020.Google Scholar
Thayer, Carlyle A. 2011. “Military Politics in Contemporary Vietnam: Political Engagement, Corporate Interests, and Professionalism.” In Mietzner, Marcus, ed., The Political Resurgence of the Military in Southeast Asia: Conflict and Leadership. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Torigian, Joseph. 2016. “Prestige, Manipulation, and Coercion: Elite Power Struggles and the Fate of Three Revolutions.” Ph.D. diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/107535, accessed June 26, 2020.Google Scholar
Trimberger, Ellen Kay. 1978. Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt, and Peru. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Turley, William S. 1972. “Army, Party and Society in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam: Civil-Military Relations in a Mass-Mobilization System.” Ph.D. diss., University of Washington.Google Scholar
Turley, William S. 1977. “Origins and Development of Communist Military Leadership in Vietnam.” Armed Forces & Society 3, no. 2: 219–47. doi: 10.1177/0095327x7700300206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turley, William S. 1988. “The Military Construction of Socialism: Postwar Roles of the People’s Army of Vietnam.” In Marr, David G. and White, Christine P., eds., Postwar Vietnam: Dilemmas in Socialist Development. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program.Google Scholar
Vu, Tuong. 2017. Vietnam’s Communist Revolution: The Power and Limits of Ideology. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldner, David. 2017. “A Coalitional Theory of Autocratic Regime Survival.” Paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, Calif., August 31–September 1.Google Scholar
Walt, Stephen M. 1996. Revolution and War. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Wayne Ayres. 1965. “The Pakistan Coup d’Etat of 1958.” Pacific Affairs 38, no. 2: 142–63. doi: 10.2307/2753785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Womack, John, Jr. 1968. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution. New York, N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Lachapelle et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/OMDQI9
Link
Supplementary material: Link

Lachapelle et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.79/DVN/OMDQI9.
Link
Supplementary material: PDF

Lachapelle et al. supplementary material

Lachapelle et al. supplementary material

Download Lachapelle et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 437.3 KB