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⁴ For a recent reiteration of this view, see Pastor, Robert A., Congress and the Politics of U.S. Foreign Economic Policy 1929–1976 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 84–93.Google Scholar

⁵ The phrase was coined by Keohane, Robert O. in “The Theory of Hegemonic Stability and Changes in International Economic Regimes, 1967–1977,” in Holsti, Ole and others, eds., Change in the International System (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980), 131–62.Google Scholar

⁶ Peter Alexis Gourevitch is an exception to this general rule. See his “International Trade, Domestic Coalitions, and Liberty: Comparative Responses to the Crisis of 1873–1896,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 8 (Autumn 1977), 281–313.

⁷ Kindleberger, , The World in Depression 1929–1939 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).Google Scholar

⁸ Ibid., 292.

⁹ Kindleberger, , “Dominance and Leadership in the International Economy: Exploitation, Public Goods, and Free Rides,” International Studies Quarterly 25 (June 1981), 247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Kindleberger (fn. 7), 302, esp. n. 13.

¹¹ Kindleberger (fn. 9), 249.

¹² Ibid., 250.

¹³ Kindleberger (fn. 7), 305.

¹⁴ See Gilpin, Robert, U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment (New York: Basic Books, 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “Economic Interdependence and National Security in Historical Perspective,” in Knorr, Klaus and Trager, Frank N., eds., Economic Issues and National Security (Lawrence, Kansas: Regents Press of Kansas, 1977). 19–66.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Gilpin (fn. 14, 1975), 39–40.

¹⁶ Ibid., 84–85.

¹⁷ Gilpin (fn. 14, 1977), 22.

¹⁸ For a definition of hegemony related to issue area, see Keohane (fn. 5).

¹⁹ The following discussion is a summary of a deductive systemic-level theory put forth in Lake, David A., “Between Openness and Closure: International Economic Structures and American Trade Policy, 1887–1934,” Ph.D. diss. (Cornell University, forthcoming 1983)Google Scholar; copies available upon request.

²⁰ For a brief discussion of the importance of agriculture before 1887, see LaFeber, Walter, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion 1860–1898 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1963), 9–10.Google Scholar

²¹ Williams, William Appleman, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York: Random House, 1969).Google Scholar

²² Terrill (fn. 2), 18; Williams (fn. 21), 106.

²³ The best discussions of this reconceptualization of the tariff are contained in LaFeber (fn. 20), 1–61, and Terrill (fn. 2), 14–158.

²⁴ See the debates over the McKinley Tariff within Congress: Congressional Record (fn. 1), 4247–10740.

²⁵ Quoted in Campbell, Charles S. Jr, Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1968), 6.Google Scholar

²⁶ Ibid., 7.

²⁷ Ibid., 8; also see Novack, David E. and Simon, Matthew, “Commercial Responses to the American Export Invasion, 1871–1914: An Essay in Attitudinal History,” Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, Second Series, 3 (No. 2, 1966), 137.Google Scholar

²⁸ Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy 1900–1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 25–26.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid., 25.

³⁰ Ibid., 32.

³¹ Ibid., 34.

³² McCormick, Thomas J., China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire 1893–1901 (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967), 127.Google Scholar

³³ Congressional Record, 61st Cong., 1st sess., 1909, 285; emphasis added.

³⁴ For the views of the Progressives, see Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform: From Byran to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955)Google Scholar; for the views of the larger business interests, see Becker, William H., The Dynamics of Business-Government Relations: Industry and Exports 1893–1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), esp. pp. 69–90.Google Scholar

³⁵ Baker, Richard Cleveland, The Tariff Under Roosevelt and Taft (Hastings, Nebraska: Democrat Printing, 1941), 12–44, esp. p. 39.Google Scholar

³⁶ United States Tariff Commission, Reciprocity and Commercial Treaties (Washington: G.P.O., 1919), 270–71.Google Scholar

³⁷ Quoted in Diamond, William, “The Economic Thought of Woodrow Wilson,” Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science 61 (No. 4, 1943), 134.Google Scholar

³⁸ Richardson, H. R., Messages and Papers of the Presidents, XVIII (New York: Bureau of National Literature), 8251–52.Google Scholar

³⁹ One of the best discussions of the Paris Economic Conference and its aftermath is contained in Parrini, Carl P., Heir to Empire: United States Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1969), 15–39.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Ibid., 34.

⁴¹ See Culbertson, William S., Reciprocity: A National Policy for Foreign Trade (New York: McGraw Hill, 1937), esp. Appendix 6, 238–79.Google Scholar

⁴² See Leffler, Melvyn P., The Elusive Quest: America's Pursuit of European Stability and French Security 1919–1933 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 165–73.Google Scholar

⁴³ Parrini (fn. 39), 270–71.

⁴⁴ Leffler (fn. 42), 40–81.

⁴⁵ Feis, Herbert, The Diplomacy of the Dollar: First Era 1919–1932 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1950), 11.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ For instance, the United States placed an embargo on loans to France in April 1925. The House of Morgan had already refused to renew a $100 million credit until France made certain key concessions in the negotiations leading up to the Dawes Loan of October 1924. See Leffler (fn. 42), 125.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 40–81.

⁴⁸ The legislative history of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff is summarized in Schatt-schneider, E. E., Politics, Pressures and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Britain's shift to protectionism is summarized in Kottman, Richard N., Reciprocity and the North Atlantic Triangle 1932–1938 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1968), 13–38.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Of the prolific writings of Kendrick, John W., the most complete volume is Productivity Trends in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961).Google Scholar The debate over the proper definition of productivity is summarized in the exchange between Kendrick and Stanley H. Ruttenberg, Director of the National Bureau of Economic Research (which sponsored the study); see pp. 224–28.

⁵¹ See Fourastie, Jean, Productivity Prices and Wages (Paris: OEEC, 1957).Google Scholar

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⁵³ Maddison, Angus, “Long Run Dynamics of Productivity Growth,” Banca Nazionale Del Lavoro Quarterly Review, No. 128 (March 1979), 43.Google Scholar