Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-07T02:09:49.214Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Effects of Weather-Induced Migration on Sons of the Soil Riots in India

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 August 2015

Rikhil R. Bhavnani  and
Bethany Lacina
Get access

Extract

Migration is thought to cause sons of the soil conflict, particularly if natives tend to be unemployed. Using data from India, the authors investigate the causal effect of domestic migration on riots by instrumenting for migration using weather shocks in migrants’ places of origin. They find a direct effect of migration on riots, but do not find that this effect is larger in places with more native unemployment. They argue and find evidence that migration is less likely to cause rioting where the host population is politically aligned with the central government. Politically privileged host populations can appease nativists and reduce migration through means that are less costly than rioting. Without these political resources, hosts resort to violence. Beyond furthering the sons of the soil literature, the authors detail a political mechanism linking natural disasters and, possibly, climate change and environmental degradation to riots, and demonstrate a widely applicable strategy for recovering the causal effect of migration on violence.

Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 67 , Issue 4 , October 2015 , pp. 760 - 794
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aktürk, Sener. 2011. “Regimes of Ethnicity: Comparative Analysis of Germany, the Soviet Union/Post-Soviet Russia, and Turkey.” World Politics 63, no. 1: 115–64.Google Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D., and Kugler, Adriana D.. 2003. “Protective or Counter-productive? Labour Market Institutions and the Effect of Immigration on EU Natives.” The Economic Journal 113, no. 488: F302–F331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D., and Pischke, Jörn-Steffen. 2008. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D., and Pischke, Jörn-Steffen. 2010. “Multiple Endogenous Variables—now What?” At http://mostlyharmlesseconometrics.com/2010/02/multiple-endogenous-variables-what-now/, acessed september 30, 2014.Google Scholar
Benjaminsen, Tor A., Alinon, Koff, Buhaug, Halvard, and Buseth, Jill Tove. 2012. “Does Climate Change Drive Land-use Conficts in the Sahel?” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 97–111.Google Scholar
Bergholt, Drago, and Lujala, Päivi. 2012. “Climate-related Natural Disasters, Economic Growth, and Armed Civil Confict.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 147–62.Google Scholar
Besley, Timothy, and Burgess, Robin. 2002. “The Political Economy of Government Responsiveness: Theory and Evidence from India.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 19, no. 1: 1415–51.Google Scholar
Bhavnani, Rikhil R., and Lacina, Bethany. 2015. Supplementary material. At http://dx.doi.org.10.1017/S0043887115000222.Google Scholar
Bohlken, Anjali Thomas, andSergenti, Ernest John. 2010. “Economic Growth and Ethnic Violence: An Empirical Investigation of Hindu-Muslim Riots in India.” Journal of Peace Research 47, no. 5: 589–600.Google Scholar
Bohra-Mishra, Pratikshya, and Massey, Douglas S.. 2011a. “Environmental Degradation and Out-Migration: New Evidence from Nepal.” In Piguet, Etienne, Pécoud, Antoine, and Guchteneire, Paul de, eds., Migration and Climate Change, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 74–101.Google Scholar
Bohra-Mishra, Pratikshya, and Massey, Douglas S.. 2011b. “Individual Decisions to Migrate During Civil Confict.” Demography 48, no. 1: 401–24.Google Scholar
Boston, Jonathan, Nel, Philip, and Righarts, Marjolein, eds. 2009. Climate Change and Security: Planning for the Future. Wellington, New Zealand: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellingon.Google Scholar
Brancati, Dawn. 2007. “Political Aftershocks: The Impact of Earthquakes on Intrastate Confict.” Journal of Confict Resolution 51, no. 5: 715–43.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 1997. Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 2003. The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India. Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Oli. 2008. Migration and Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brückner, Markus, and Ciccone, Antonio. 2011. “Rain and the Democratic Window of Opportunity.” Econometrica 79, no. 3: 923–47.Google Scholar
Bryjak, George J. 1986. “Collective Violence in India.” Asian Affairs 13, no. 2: 35–55.Google Scholar
Buhaug, Halvard, and Urdal, Henrik. 2013. “An Urbanization Bomb? Population Growth and Social Disorder in Cities.” Global Environmental Change 23, no. 1: 1–10.Google Scholar
Burke, Marshall B., Miguel, Edward, Satyanath, Shanker, Dykema, John A., and Lobell, David B.. 2009. “Warming Increases the Risk of Civil War in Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 49: 20670–74.Google Scholar
Burke, Marshall B., Miguel, Edward, Satyanath, Shanker, Dykema, John A., and Lobell, David B.. 2010. “Climate Robustly Linked to African Civil War.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 51: e185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnside, Craig, and Dollar, David. 2000. “Aid, Policies, and Growth.” American Economic Review 90, no. 4: 847–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Wimmer, Andreas, and Min, Brian. 2010. “Why do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis.” World Politics 62, no. 1: 87–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christin, Thomas, and Hug, Simon. 2006. “Federalism, the Geographic Location of Groups, and Confict.” Confict Management and Peace Science 29, no. 1: 93–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, Shawn A., Healy, Andrew, and Werker, Eric D.. 2008. “Do Voters Appreciate Responsive Governments? Evidence from Indian Disaster Relief.” Harvard Business School Working Paper vol. 9, no. 050. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Dancygier, Rafaela M. 2010. Immigration and Confict in Europe. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Deshingkar, Priya, and Akter, Shaheen. 2009. “Migration and Human Development in India.” Human Development Research Paper HDRP–2009–13. New York, N.Y.: United Nations Development Program.Google Scholar
Deshingkar, Priya, and Farrington, John. 2009. “A Framework for Understanding Circular Migration.” In Deshingkar, Priya and Farrington, John, eds., Circular Migration and Rural Livelihood Strategies in Rural India. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press: 1–36.Google Scholar
Directorate of Census Operations. 1991. Census of India 1991. New Delhi, India: Government of India Press.Google Scholar
Directorate of census operations. 2001. Census of India 2001. New Delhi, India: Government of India Press.Google Scholar
Dua, Bhagwan D. 1979. “Presidential Rule in India: A Study in Crisis Politics.” Asian Survey 19, no. 6: 611–26.Google Scholar
ECI. 2015. General Election Results and Statistics. New Delhi, India: Election Commission of India. At http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/electionstatistics.aspx, accessed february 5, 2015.Google Scholar
EM-DAT. 2013. Emergency Events Database v 12.07. Brussels, Belgium: Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.Google Scholar
Faist, Thomas, and Schade, Jeanette. 2013. “The Climate-Migration Nexus: A Reorientation.” In Faist, Thomas and Schade, Jeanette, eds., Disentangling Migration and Climate Change: Methodologies, Political Discourses, and Human Rights. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer: 3–27.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97, no. 1: 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2011. “Sons of the Soil, Migrants, and Civil War.” World Development 39, no. 2: 199–211.Google Scholar
Feder, Gershon, and Noronha, Raymond. 1987. “Land Rights Systems and Agricultural Development In Sub-Saharan Africa.” The World Bank Research Observer 2, no. 2: 143–69.Google Scholar
Frankel, Jeffrey A., and Romer, David. 1999. “Does Trade Cause Growth?” American Economic Review 89, no. 3: 379–99.Google Scholar
Frees, Edward W. 1992. “Forecasting State-to-State Migration Rates.” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 10, no. 2: 153–67.Google Scholar
Gleick, Peter. 2014. “Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Confict in Syria.” Weather, Climate, and Society 6, no. 3: 331–40.Google Scholar
Hainmuller, Jens, and Hiscox, Michael J.. 2010. “Attitudes toward highly skilled and Low Skilled Immigration: Evidence from a Survey Experiment.” American Political Science Review 104, no. 1: 61–84.Google Scholar
Hale, Henry E. 2004. “Divided We Stand: Institutional Sources of Ethnofederal State Survival and Collapse.” World Politics 56, no. 2: 165–93.Google Scholar
Hansen, Thomas B. 2001. Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hazarika, Sanjoy. 1994. Strangers of the Mist: Tales of War and Peace from India’s Northeast. New Delhi, India: Viking.Google Scholar
Hendrix, Cullen S., and Glaser, Sarah M.. 2007. “Trends and Triggers: Climate, Climate Change, and Civil Confict in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Political Geography 26, no. 6: 695–715.Google Scholar
Hendrix, Cullen S., and Salehyan, Idean. 2012. “Climate Change, Rainfall, and Social Confict in Africa.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 35–50.Google Scholar
Hidalgo, F. Daniel, Naidu, Suresh, Nichter, Simeon, and Richardson, Neal. 2010. “Economic Determinants of Land Invasions.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 92, no. 3: 505–23.Google Scholar
Homer-Dixon, Thomas F. 1994. “Environmental Scarcities and Violent Confict: Evidence from Cases.” International Security 19, no. 1: 5–40.Google Scholar
Homer-Dixon, Thomas F. 1999. Environment, Scarcity, and Violence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hsiang, Solomon M., Meng, Kyle C., and Cane, Mark A.. 2011. “Civil Conficts Are Associated with the Global Climate.” Nature 476, no. 7361: 438–41.Google Scholar
IITM. 2012. Longest Instrumental Rainfall Series of the Indian Regions (1813–2006). Pune, India: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology.Google Scholar
IndiaStat. 2000. IndiaStat: Revealing India Statistically. New Delhi, India: Data-net India Pvt. Ltd.Google Scholar
IWP. 2012. India Water Portal: Meteorological Data Sets. Bangalore, India: Arghyam. At http://www.indiawaterportal.org/data, accessed September 30, 2014.Google Scholar
Iyer, Lakshmi, Mani, Anandi, Mishra, Prachi, and Topalova, Petia. 2012. “The Power of Political Voice: Women’s Political Representation and Crime in India.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4, no. 4: 165–93.Google Scholar
Jacoby, Hanan G., and Skoufas, Emmanuel. 1997. “Risk, Financial Markets, and Human Capital in a Developing Country.” The Review of Economic Studies 64, no. 3: 311–35.Google Scholar
Jayachandran, Seema. 2006. “Selling Labor Low: Wage Responses to Productivity Shocks in Developing Countries.” Journal of Political Economy 114, no. 3: 538–75.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2003. “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 1, no. 3: 475–94.Google Scholar
Kapur, Devesh, Gawande, Kishore, and Satyanath, Shanker. 2012. “Renewable Resource Shocks and Confict in India’s Maoist Belt.” CASI Working Paper Series 12-02. Philadelphia, Pa.: Center for Advanced Study of India, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Kathuria, Harbir Singh. 1990. President’s Rule in India: 1967–89. New Delhi, India: Uppal Publishing House.Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 1979. Ethnicity and Equality: The Shiv Sena Party and Preferential Policies in Bombay. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Khemani, Stuti. 2007. “Does Delegation of Fiscal Policy to an Independent Agency make a Difference? Evidence from Intergovernmental Transfers in India.” Journal of Development Economics 82, no. 2: 464–84.Google Scholar
Kleemans, Marieke, and Magruder, Jeremy. 2014. “Labor Market Changes in Response to Immigration: Evidence from Internal Migration Driven by Weather Shocks.” Manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kochar, Anjini. 1999. “Smoothing Consumption by Smoothing Income: Hours-Of-Work Responses to Idiosyncratic Agricultural Shocks in Rural India.” Review of Economics and Statistics 81, no. 1: 50–61.Google Scholar
Koubi, Vally, Bernauer, Thomas, Kalbhenn, Anna, and Spilker, Gabriele. 2012. “Climate Variability, Economic Growth, and Civil Confict.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 113–27.Google Scholar
Kumar, K. S. Kavi. 2011. “Climate Sensitivity of Indian Agriculture: Do Spatial Effects Matter?” Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy & Society 4, no. 2: 221–35.Google Scholar
Lacina, Bethany. 2010. The Politics of Security Policy: Evidence from Language Violence in India, 1950–1989. Ph.D. diss., Stanford University.Google Scholar
Lama, Mahendra P. 2000. “Internal Displacement in India: Causes, Protection and Dilemmas.” Forced Migration Review 8: 24–26.Google Scholar
Malhotra, Neil, Margalit, Yotam, and Hyunjung Mo, Cecilia. 2013. “Economic Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing between Prevalence and Conditionalc Impact.” American Journal of Political Science 57, no. 2: 391–410.Google Scholar
Mall, R. K., Gupta, Akilesh, Singh, Ranjeet, Singh, R. S., and Rathore, L. S.. 2006. “Water Resources and Climate Change: An Indian Perspective.” Current Science 90, no. 12: 1610–26.Google Scholar
Martin, A. 2005. “Environmental Confict between Refugee and Host Communities.” Journal of Peace Research 42, no. 3: 329–46.Google Scholar
Massey, Douglas S., Axinn, William G., and Ghimire, Dirgha J.. 2010. “Environmental Change and Out-Migration: Evidence from Nepal.” Population and Environment 32, no. 2–3: 109–136.Google Scholar
Mckenzie, David, and Rapoport, Hillel. 2007. “Network Effects and the Dynamics of Migration and Inequality: Theory and Evidence from Mexico.” Journal of Development Economics 84, no. 1: 1–24.Google Scholar
Meier, Patrick, Bond, Doug, and Bond, Joe. 2007. “Environmental Infuences on Pastoral Confict in the Horn of Africa.” Political Geography 26, no. 6: 716–35.Google Scholar
Mendelsohn, Robert, Dinar, Ariel, and Sanghi, Apurva. 2001. “The Effect of Development on the Climate Sensitivity of Agriculture.” Environment and Development Economics 6, no. 1: 85–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miguel, Edward, Satyanath, Shanker, and Sergenti, Ernest. 2004. “Economic Shocks and Civil Confict: an Instrumental Variables Approach.” Journal of Political Economy 112, no. 4: 725–53.Google Scholar
Minnesota Population Center. 2011. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, International (IPUMS–International): Version 6.1. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Moore, Will H., and Shellman, Stephen M.. 2004. “Fear of Persecution: Forced Migration, 1952–1995.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 48, no. 5: 723–45.Google Scholar
Morrison, Andrew R., and May, Rachel A.. 1994. “Escape from Terror: Violence and Migration in Post-Revolutionary Guatemala.” Latin American Research Review 29, no. 2: 111–32.Google Scholar
Munshi, Kaivan. 2003. “Networks in the Modern Economy: Mexican Migrants in the US Labor Market.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, no. 2: 549–99.Google Scholar
National Crime Records Bureau. 2001. Crime in India, 2001. New Delhi, India: Ministry of Home Affairs (India) and Government of India Press.Google Scholar
Nel, Philip, and Righarts, Mariolien. 2008. “Natural Disasters and the Risk of Violent Civil Conflict.” International Studies Quarterly 52, no. 1: 159–85.Google Scholar
Newbold, K. Bruce. 2001. “Counting Migrants and Migrations: Comparing Lifetime and Fixed-Interval Return and Onward Migration.” Economic Geography 77, no. 1: 23–40.Google Scholar
NSS. 1983. Socio-Economy Survey, Thirty-eighth Round: January to December 1983: Household Schedule 10: Employment and Unemployment. New Delhi, India: National Sample Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.Google Scholar
NSS. 1987. Socio-Economy Survey, Forty-third Round: July 1987–June 1988: Household Schedule 10: Employment and Unemployment. New Delhi, India: National Sample Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.Google Scholar
NSS. 1999. Socio-Economy Survey, Fifty-fifth Round: July 1999–June 2000: Household Schedule 10: Employment and Unemployment. New Delhi, India: National Sample Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.Google Scholar
Parthasarathy, B., Munot, A. A., and Kothawale, D. R.. 1995. “Monthly and Seasonal Rainfall Series for All-India Homogeneous Regions and Meteorological Subdivisions: 1871–1994.” Contributions from Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Research Report RR-065. Pune, India: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology.Google Scholar
Peluso, Nancy Lee, and Vandergeest, Peter. 1987. “Genealogies of the Political Forest and Customary Rights in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.” The Journal of Asian Studies 60, no. 3: 761–812.Google Scholar
Rajan, Raghuram G., and Subramanian, Arvind. 2008. “Aid and Growth: What Does the Cross-Country Evidence Really Show?” The Review of Economics and Statistics 90, no. 4: 643–65.Google Scholar
Raleigh, Clionadh, and Kniveton, Dominic. 2012. “Come Rain or Shine: An Analysis of Conflict and Climate Variability in East Africa.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 51–64.Google Scholar
Raleigh, Clionadh, and Urdal, Henrik. 2007. “Climate Change, Environmental Degradation and Armed Conflict.” Political Geography 26, no. 6: 674–94.Google Scholar
Reuveny, Rafael. 2007. “Climate Change-Induced Migration and Violent Confict.” Political Geography 26, no. 6: 656–73.Google Scholar
Reuveny, Rafael, and Moore, Will H.. 2009. “Does Environmental Degradation Infuence Migration? Emigration to Developed Countries in the Late 1980s and 1990s.” Social Science Quarterly 90, no. 3: 461–79.Google Scholar
Rodden, Jonathan, and Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. “The Shifting Political Economy of Redistribution in the Indian Federation.” Working Paper. Boston, Mass.:, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and Durham, N.C.: Duke University.Google Scholar
Rose, Elaina. 2001. “Ex-ante and Ex-post Labor Supply Response to Risk in a Low-Income Area.” Journal of Development Economics 64, no. 2: 371–88.Google Scholar
Salehyan, Idean. 2008. “The Externalities of Civil Strife: Refugees as a Source of International Conflict.” American Journal of Political Science 52, no. 4: 787–801.Google Scholar
Salehyan, Idean, and Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede. 2006. “Refugees and the Spread of Civil War.” International Organization 60, no. 2: 335–66.Google Scholar
Sarsons, Heather. 2012. “Rainfall, Rupees, and Riots: Testing Rainfall as an Instrumental Variable.” Working Paper. Vancouver, Canada: University of British columbia.Google Scholar
Scheffran, Jürgen, Brzoska, Michael, Brauch, Hans Günter, Link, Peter Michael, and Schilling, Janpeter, eds. 2012. Climate Change, Human Security, and Violent Conflict. New York, N.Y.: Springer.Google Scholar
Schultz, T. Paul. 1971. “Rural-Urban Migration in Colombia.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 53, no. 2: 157–63.Google Scholar
Shain, Yossi, and Barth, Aharon. 2003. “Diasporas and International Relations Theory.” International Organization 57, no. 3: 449–79.Google Scholar
Singh, Nirvikar, and Vasishtha, Garima. 2004. “Patterns in Centre-State Fiscal Transfers: An Illustrative Analysis.” Economic and Political Weekly 39, no. 45: 4897–4903.Google Scholar
Sontakke, N. A., Singh, Nityanand, and Singh, H. N.. 2008. “Instrumental Period Rainfall Series of the Indian Region (1813–2005): Revised Reconstruction, Update and Analysis.” The Holocene 18, no. 7: 1055–66.Google Scholar
Staiger, Douglas, and Stock, James H.. 1997. “Instrumental Variables Regression with Weak Instruments.” Econometrica 65, no. 3: 557–86.Google Scholar
Stock, James H., and Yogo, Motohiro. 2005. “Testing for Weak Instruments in Linear IV Regression.” In Stock, James H. and Andrews, Donald W. K., eds., Identifcation and Inference for Econometric Models: Essays in Honor of Thomas J. Rothenberg. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 80–108.Google Scholar
Suhrke, Astri. 2009. “Environmental Degradation, Migration, and the Potential for Violent Conflict.” In Gleditsch, Nils Peter, ed., Conflict and the Environment. Norwell, Mass.: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 255–72.Google Scholar
Theisen, Ole Magnus. 2012. “Climate Clashes? Weather Variability, Land Pressure, and Organized Violence in Kenya, 1989–2004.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1: 81–96.Google Scholar
Theisen, Ole Magnus, Holtermann, Helge, and Buhaug, Halvard. 2011. “Climate Wars? Assessing the Claim That Drought Breeds Conflict.” International Security 36, no. 3: 79–106.Google Scholar
Toft, Monica Duffy. 2005. The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Violence, Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
TOI News Service. 1986a. “Migrants turn Violent in Delhi: Call for Punjab Bandh Today.” Times of India. October 27: 1.Google Scholar
TOI News Service. 1986b. “Delhi Fears Post-Riot Migrations.” Times of India. October 28: 1.Google Scholar
Tolnay, Stewart E., and Beck, E. M.. 1992. “Racial Violence and Black Migration in the American South, 1910 to 1930.” American Sociological Review 57, no. 1: 103–16.Google Scholar
UCDP/PRIO. 2013. UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset Codebook, Version 4-2013. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Conflict Data Program.Google Scholar
Urdal, Henrik. 2005. “People vs. Malthus: Population Pressure, Environmental Degradation, and Armed Conflict Revisited.” Journal of Peace Research 42, no. 4: 417–34.Google Scholar
Urdal, Henrik. 2008. “Population, Resources, and Political Violence: A Subnational Study of India, 1956–2002.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 52, no. 4: 590–617.Google Scholar
Urdal, Henrik and Hoelscher, Kristian. 2012. “Explaining Urban Social Disorder and Violence: An Empirical Study of Event Data from Asian and Sub-Saharan African Cities.” International Interactions 38, no. 4: 512–28.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh, and Wilkinson, Steven. 2006. “Varshney-Wilkinson Data Set on Hindu-Muslim Violence in India, 1950–1995, Version 2.” Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research 4342. At http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/DSDR/studies/4342, accessed February 5, 2015.Google Scholar
Wallace, Jeremy. 2013. “Cities, Redistribution, and Authoritarian Regime Survival.” Journal of Politics 75, no. 3: 632–45.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1978. Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron, Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, and K. V. Narayana Rao. 1981. India’s Preferential Policies: Migrants, the Middle Classes, and Ethnic Equality. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
White, Gregory. 2011. Climate Change and Migration. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven I. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wischnath, gerdis, and Buhaug, Halvard. 2014. “Rice or Riots: on food Production and Conflict Severity across India.” Political Geography 43: 6–15.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Bhavnani and Lacina supplementary material

Bhavnani and Lacina supplementary material 1

Download Bhavnani and Lacina supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 212.1 KB