Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-mzp66 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T17:34:07.378Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Decay or Resilience?

The Long-Term Social Consequences of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 March 2018

Carlo Koos Open the ORCID record for Carlo Koos [Opens in a new window]
Get access

Extract

This article examines the long-term impact of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) on prosocial behavior in Sierra Leone. Two theoretical arguments are developed and tested. The first draws on the feminist literature and suggests the presence of a decay mechanism: victims and their families are stigmatized by their community and excluded from social networks. The second integrates new insights from social psychology, psychological trauma research, and anthropology, and argues for a resilience mechanism. It argues that CRSV-affected households have a strong incentive to remain part of their community and will invest more effort and resources into the community to avert social exclusion than unaffected households. Using data on 5,475 Sierra Leonean households, the author finds that exposure to CRSV increases prosocial behavior—cooperation, helping, and altruism—which supports the resilience hypothesis. The results are robust to an instrumental variable estimation. The ramifications of this finding go beyond the case of Sierra Leone and generate a more general question: What makes communities resilient to shocks and trauma?

Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 70 , Issue 2 , April 2018 , pp. 194 - 238
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aldrich, Daniel P. 2012. Building Resilience: Social Capital in Post-Disaster Recovery. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Amowitz, Lynn L., Reis, Chen, Lyons, Kristina Hare, Vann, Beth, Mansaray, Binta, Akinsulure-Smith, Adyinka M., Taylor, Louise, and Iacopino, Vincent. 2002. “Prevalence of War-Related Sexual Violence and Other Human Rights Abuses among Internally Displaced Persons in Sierra Leone.” JAMA 287, no. 4: 513–21. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.4.513.Google Scholar
Angrist, Joshua, and Pischke, Jorn-Steffen. 2015. Mastering Metrics: The Path from Cause to Effect. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Annan, Jeannie, Blattman, Christopher, Mazurana, Dyan, and Carlson, Khristopher. 2011. “Civil War, Reintegration, and Gender in Northern Uganda.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55, no. 6: 877–908. doi: 10.1177/0022002711408013.Google Scholar
Bambrick, Kati. 2004. “Silent Victims, Young Girls at Risk: An Evaluation of Post-War Rape and the Response to Rape in the Provinces of Sierra Leone.” Technical Report. Freetown, Sierra Leone: Campaign for Good Governance.Google Scholar
Batson, C. Daniel, Lishner, David A., and Stocks, Eric L.. 2015. “The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis.” In Schroeder, David A. and Graziano, William G., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bauer, Michal, Blattman, Christopher, Chytilová, Julie, Henrich, Joseph, Miguel, Edward, and Mitts, Tamar. 2016. “Can War Foster Cooperation?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 30, no. 3: 249–74. doi: 10.1257/jep.30.3.249.Google Scholar
Bauer, Michal, Cassar, Alessandra, Chytilová, Julie, and Henrich, Joseph. 2014. “War's Enduring Effects on the Development of Egalitarian Motivations and In-Group Biases.” Psychological Science 25, no. 1: 47–57. doi: 10.1177/0956797613493444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beber, Bernd, Roessler, Philip, and Scacco, Alexandra. 2014. “Intergroup Violence and Political Attitudes: Evidence from a Dividing Sudan.” Journal of Politics 76, no. 3: 649–65. doi: 10.1017/S0022381614000103.Google Scholar
Becchetti, Leonardo, Conzo, Pierluigi, and Romeo, Alessandro. 2011. “Violence, Social Capital and Economic Development: Evidence of a Microeconomic Vicious Circle.” ECINEQ Working Paper 2011-197. Verona, Italy: Society for the Study of Economic Inequality. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6240219.pdf, accessed December 4, 2017.Google Scholar
Bellows, John, and Miguel, Edward. 2006. “War and Institutions: New Evidence from Sierra Leone.” American Economic Review 96, no. 2: 394–99. doi: 10.1257/000282806777212323.Google Scholar
Bellows, John, and Miguel, Edward. 2009. “War and Local Collective Action in Sierra Leone.” Journal of Public Economics 93, no. 11: 1144–57. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.07.012.Google Scholar
Blackwell, Matthew, Iacus, Stefano, King, Gary, and Porro, Guiseppe. 2009. “cem: Coarsened Exact Matching in Stata.” Stata Journal 9, no. 4: 524–46. At https://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/cemStata_0.pdf, accessed January 5, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blattman, Christopher. 2009. “From Violence to Voting: War and Political Participation in Uganda.” American Political Science Review 103, no. 2: 231–47. doi: 10.1017/S0003055409090212.Google Scholar
Bonanno, George A., Westphal, Maren, and Mancini, Anthony D.. 2011. “Resilience to Loss and Potential Trauma.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 7, no. 1: 511–35. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In Richardson, John G., ed., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, N.Y.: Greenwood Publishing Group Inc.: 241–58.Google Scholar
Bowlby, John. 1969. Attachment. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowles, Samuel. 2008. “Being Human: Conflict: Altruism's Midwife.” Nature 456: 326–27. doi: 10.1038/456326a.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownmiller, Susan. 1975. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Buss, Doris E. 2009. “Rethinking ‘Rape as a Weapon of War.’” Feminist Legal Studies 17, no. 2: 145–63. doi: 10.1007/s10691-009-9118-5.Google Scholar
Calhoun, Lawrence G., and Tedeschi, Richard G.. 2014. Handbook of Posttraumatic Growth: Research and Practice. New York, N.Y.: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Card, Claudia. 1996. “Rape as a Weapon of War.” Hypatia 11, no. 4: 5–18. doi: 10.1111/j.1527-2001.1996.tb01031.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, Charli. 2006. “Recognizing Gender-Based Violence against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations.” Security Dialogue 37, no. 1: 83–103. doi: 10.1177/0967010606064139.Google Scholar
Carter-Sowell, Adrienne R., Cheng, Zhansheng, and Williams, Kipling D.. 2008. “Ostracism Increases Social Susceptibility.” Social Influence 3, no. 3: 143–53. doi: 10.1080/15534510802204868.Google Scholar
Christian, Mervyn, Safari, Octave, Ramazani, Paul, Burnham, Gilbert, and Glass, Nancy. 2011. “Sexual and Gender Based Violence against Men in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Effects on Survivors, Their Families and the Community.” Medicine, Conflict, and Survival 27, no. 4: 227–46. doi: 10.1080/13623699.2011.645144.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2013a. “Explaining Rape during Civil War: Cross-National Evidence (1980–2009).” American Political Science Review 107, no. 3: 461–77. doi: 10.1017/S0003055413000221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2013b. “Female Combatants and the Perpetration of Violence: Wartime Rape in the Sierra Leone Civil War.” World Politics, 65, no. 3 (July): 383–415. doi: 10.1017/S0043887113000105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2016. Rape during Civil War. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay, and Green, Amelia Hoover. 2012. “Dueling Incentives: Sexual Violence in Liberia and the Politics of Human Rights Advocacy.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 3: 445–58. doi: 10.1177/0022343312436769.Google Scholar
Coulter, Chris. 2009. Bush Wives and Girl Soldiers: Women's Lives through War and Peace in Sierra Leone. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
De Luca, Giacomo, and Verpoorten, Marijke. 2015. “Civil War and Political Participation: Evidence from Uganda.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 64, no. 1: 113–41. doi: 10.1086/682957.Google Scholar
Denov, M. S. 2006. “Wartime Sexual Violence: Assessing a Human Security Response to War-Affected Girls in Sierra Leone.” Security Dialogue 37, no. 3: 319–42. doi: 10.1177/0967010606069178.Google Scholar
DeWall, C. Nathan, ed. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Diken, Bülent, and Laustsen, Carsten Bagge. 2005. “Becoming Abject: Rape as a Weapon of War.” Body & Society 11, no. 1: 111–28. doi: 10.1177/1357034X05049853.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, John F., Piliavin, Jane Allyn, Schroeder, David A., and Penner, Louis A.. 2006. The Social Psychology of Prosocial Behavior. Mahwah, N.J.: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. [1893]. 1984. The Division of Labor in Society. New York, N.Y.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Gberie, Lansana. 2005. A Dirty War in West Africa: The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Gilligan, Michael J., Pasquale, Benjamin J., and Samii, Cyrus. 2013. “Civil War and Social Cohesion: Lab-in-the-Field Evidence from Nepal.” American Journal of Political Science 58, no. 3: 604–19. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12067.Google Scholar
Gottschall, Jonathan. 2004. “Explaining Wartime Rape.” Journal of Sex Research 41, no. 2: 129–36. doi: 10.1080/00224490409552221.Google Scholar
Guberek, Tamy, Guzmán, Daniel, Silva, Romesh, Cibelli, Kristen, Asher, Jana, Weikart, Scott, Ball, Patrick, and Grossman, Wendy M.. 2006. “Truth and Myth in Sierra Leone: An Empirical Analysis of the Conflict, 1991–2000.” A Report by the Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group and the American Bar Association. Palo Alto, Calif.: Benetech. At https://hrdag.org/publications/truth-and-myth-in-sierra-leone-an-empirical-analysis-of-the-conflict-1991-2000, accessed December 4, 2017.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco, and Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2017. “What Should We Mean by ‘Pattern of Political Violence’? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique.” Perspectives on Politics 15, no. 1: 20–41. doi: 10.1017/S1537592716004114.Google Scholar
Hagen, Kristen, and Yohani, Sophie. 2010. “The Nature and Psychosocial Consequences of War Rape for Individuals and Communities.” International Journal of Psychological Studies 2, no. 2: 14–25. doi: 10.5539/ijps.v2n2p14.Google Scholar
Hartman, Alexandra C., and Morse, Benjamin S.. Forthcoming. “Wartime Violence, Empathy, and Intergroup Altruism: Evidence from the Ivoirian Refugee Crisis in Liberia.” Working Paper. At http://cega.berkeley.edu/assets/miscellaneous_files/119_-_HartmanMorseViolenceEmpathy-May_2015_-_ABCA.pdf, accessed December 4, 2017.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Danny. 2011. The War Machines: Young Men and Violence in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Hoover Green, Amelia. 2012. “Statistical Evidence of Sexual Violence in International Court Settings.” In Bergsmo, Morten, Skre, Alf Butenschøn, and Woods, Elisabeth J., eds., Understanding and Proving International Sex Crimes. Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher: 295–313.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2003. “‘We’ll Kill You If You Cry:’ Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict.” At https://www.hrw.org/report/2003/01/16/well-kill-you-if-you-cry/sexual-violence-sierra-leone-conflict, accessed December 4, 2017.Google Scholar
Human Security Report Project. 2012. Human Security Report 2012: Sexual Violence, Education, and War: Beyond the Mainstream Narrative. Vancouver, Canada: Human Security Press. At https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2012HumanSecurityReport-FullText_0.pdf, accessed January 5, 2018.Google Scholar
Humphreys, Macartan, and Weinstein, Jeremy M.. 2006. “Handling and Manhandling Civilians in Civil War.” American Political Science Review 100, no. 3: 429–47. doi: 10.1017/S0003055406062.Google Scholar
Iacus, Stefano M., King, Gary, and Porro, Guiseppe. 2012. “Causal Inference without Balance Checking: Coarsened Exact Matching.” Political Analysis 20, no. 1: 1–24. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpr013.Google Scholar
Imbens, Guido W., and Angrist, Joshua D.. 1994. “Identification and Estimation of Local Average Treatment Effects.” Econometrica 62, no. 2: 467–75. doi: 10.2307/2951620.Google Scholar
Keen, David. 2005. Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone. Oxford, UK: James Currey Publishers.Google Scholar
Kerr, Norbert L., Rumble, Ann C., Park, Ernest S., Ouwerkerk, Japp W., Parks, Craig D., Gallucci, Marcello, and van Lange, Paul A. M.. 2009. “How Many Bad Apples Does It Take to Spoil the Whole Barrel? Social Exclusion and Toleration for Bad Apples.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45, no. 4: 603–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.017.Google Scholar
Koos, Carlo. 2017. “Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts: Research Progress and Remaining Gaps.” Third World Quarterly 38, no. 9: 1935–51. doi: 10.1080/01436597.2017.1322461.Google Scholar
Koos, Carlo. 2018a. “Replication Data for: Decay or Resilience? The Long-Term Social Consequences of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone.” Harvard Dataverse, V. 1. doi: 10.7910/DVN/3ISXG0.Google Scholar
Koos, Carlo. 2018b. Supplementary material for “Decay or Resilience? The Long- Term Social Consequences of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone.” At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887117000351.Google Scholar
Leiby, Michele L. 2009. “Wartime Sexual Violence in Guatemala and Peru.” International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 2: 445–68. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2009.00541.x.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, Megan H. 2012. Female Soldiers in Sierra Leone: Sex, Security, and Post-Conflict Development. New York, N.Y.: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Maner, Jon K., DeWall, C. Nathan, Baumeister, Roy F., and Schaller, Mark. 2007. “Does Social Exclusion Motivate Interpersonal Reconnection? Resolving the ‘Porcupine Problem’.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 1: 42–55. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millar, Gearoid. 2012. “‘Our brothers who went to the bush’: Post-Identity Conflict and the Experience of Reconciliation in Sierra Leone.” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 5: 717–29. doi: 10.1177/0022343312440114.Google Scholar
Mills, Elizabeth, Nesbitt-Ahmed, Zahrah, Diggins, Jennifer, and Mackieu, Tamba David. 2015. “‘They Call Me Warrior’: The Legacy of Conflict and the Struggle to End Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Sierra Leone.” IDS Evidence Report 155. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. At http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/123456789/7106, accessed December 6 2017.Google Scholar
Mitton, Kieran. 2015. Rebels in a Rotten State: Understanding Atrocity in the Sierra Leone Civil War. London, UK: Hurst.Google Scholar
Molden, Daniel C., and Maner, Jon K.. 2013. “How and When Exclusion Motivates Social Reconnection.” In, DeWall, C. Nathan, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Morgan, Stephan, and Winship, Christopher. 2014. Counterfactuals and Causal Inference: Methods and Principles for Social Research. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mukamana, Donatilla, and Brysiewicz, Petra. 2008. “The Lived Experience of Genocide Rape Survivors in Rwanda.” Journal of Nursing Scholarship 40, no. 4: 379–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2008.00253.x.Google Scholar
Pearl, Judea. 2009. Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Peters, Krijn. 2011. War and the Crisis of Youth in Sierra Leone, 2nd ed. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Physicians for Human Rights. 2002. War-Related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone: A Population-Based Assessment. Boston, Mass.: Physicians for Human Rights.Google Scholar
Portes, Alejandro. 1998. “Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology.” Annual Review of Sociology 24, no. 1: 1–24. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Raleigh, Clionadh, and De Bruijne, Kars. 2015. “Where Rebels Dare to Tread: A Study of Conflict Geography and Co-option of Local Power in Sierra Leone.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 61, no. 6: 1230–60. doi: 10.1177/0022002715603767.Google Scholar
Richards, Paul. 1996. Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth & Resources in Sierra Leone. London, UK: International African Institute.Google Scholar
Rohner, Dominic, Thoenig, Mathias, and Zilibotti, Fabrizio. 2013. “Seeds of Distrust: Conflict in Uganda.” Journal of Economic Growth 18, no. 3: 217–52. doi: 10.1007/s10887-013-9093-1.Google Scholar
Schroeder, David A., and Graziano, William G.. 2015a. “The Field of Prosocial Behavior.” In Schroeder, David A. and Graziano, William G., eds. The Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schroeder, David A. and Graziano, William G.., eds. 2015b. The Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Shih, Margaret. 2004. “Positive Stigma: Examining Resilience and Empowerment in Overcoming Stigma.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 591, no. 1: 175–85. doi: 10.1177/0002716203260099.Google Scholar
Sideris, Tina. 2003. “War, Gender and Culture: Mozambican Women Refugees.” Social Science & Medicine 56, no. 4: 713–24. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00067-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 2004. “Chapter 3: Women and the Armed Conflict in Sierra Leone.” In Witness to Truth, Volume 3B. At http://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-report-text-vol-3b/item/volume-three-b-chapter-three, accessed December 6, 2017.Google Scholar
Sivakumaran, Sandesh. 2007. “Sexual Violence against Men in Armed Conflict.” European Journal of International Law 18, no. 2: 253–76. doi: 10.1093/ejil/chm013.Google Scholar
Skjelsbaek, Inger. 2006. “Victim and Survivor: Narrated Social Identities of Women Who Experienced Rape During the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina.” Feminism & Psychology 16, no. 4: 373–403. doi: 10.1177/0959353506068746.Google Scholar
Sovey, Allison J., and Green, Donald P.. 2011. “Instrumental Variables Estimation in Political Science: A Readers’ Guide.” American Journal of Political Science 55, no. 1: 188–200. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00477.x.Google Scholar
Stark, Lindsay. 2006. “Cleansing the Wounds of War: An Examination of Traditional Healing, Psychosocial Health and Reintegration in Sierra Leone.” Intervention 4, no. 3: 206–18. doi: 10.1097/WTF.0b013e328011a7d2.Google Scholar
Statistics Sierra Leone. 2011. Sierra Leone Integrated Household Survey (SLIHS) 2011. Ref. SLE _2011_SLI HS_v01_M. At http://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/4799/study-description#page=accesspolicy&tab=study-desc, accessed January 5, 2018.Google Scholar
Theidon, Kimberly. 2006. “Justice in Transition: The Micropolitics of Reconciliation in Postwar Peru.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 50, no. 3: 433–57. doi: 10.1177/0022002706286954.Google Scholar
Theidon, Kimberly. 2012. Intimate Enemies: Violence and Reconciliation in Peru. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Trenholm, J. E., Olsson, P., and Ahlberg, B. M.. 2011. “Battles on Women's Bodies: War, Rape and Traumatisation in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.” Global Public Health 6, no. 2: 139–52. doi: 10.1080/17441690903212065.Google Scholar
UNFPA. 2012. “Women Are the Fabric: Reproductive Health for Communities in Crisis.” New York, N.Y.: United Nations Population Fund. At http://www.unfpa.org/publications/women-are-fabric, accessed December 7, 2017.Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2008. “Sierra Leonean Refugees in Guinea Advised on End of their Status.” UN High Commissioner for Refugees. At http://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2008/7/4890898c4/sierra-leonean-refugees-guinea-advised-end-status.html, accessed December 7, 2017.Google Scholar
Utas, Mats. 2009. “Sexual Abuse Survivors and the Complex of Traditional Healing. (G)Local Prospects in the Aftermath of an African War.” NAI Policy Dialog. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiksa Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
van Rijn, Fédes, Bulte, Erwin, and Adekunle, Adewale. 2012. “Social Capital and Agricultural Innovation in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Agricultural Systems 108, April: 112–22. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2011.12.003.Google Scholar
Voors, Maarten J., and Bulte, Erwin H.. 2014. “Conflict and the Evolution of Institutions: Unbundling Institutions at the Local Level in Burundi.” Journal of Peace Research 51, no. 4: 455–69. doi: 10.1177/0022343314531264.Google Scholar
Voors, Maarten J., Eleonora E. M. Nillesen, Verwimp, Philip, Bulte, Erwin H., Lensink, Robert, and Van Soest, Daan P.. 2012. “Violent Conflict and Behavior: A Field Experiment in Burundi.” American Economic Review 102, no. 2: 941–64. doi: 10.1257/aer.102.2.941.Google Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. “Resources and the Information Problem in Rebel Recruitment.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 4: 598–624. doi: 10.1177/0022002705277802.Google Scholar
Winter, David A., Brown, Rachel, Goins, Stephanie, and Mason, Clare. 2016. Trauma, Survival and Resilience in War Zones: The Psychological Impact of War in Sierra Leone and Beyond. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2009. “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?” Politics & Society 37, no. 1: 131–61. doi: 10.1177/0032329208329755.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2015. “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Policy Implications of Recent Research.” International Review of the Red Cross 96, no. 894: 457–78. doi: 10.1017/S1816383115000077.Google Scholar
Woolcock, Michael, and Narayan, Deepa. 2000. “Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research, and Policy.” World Bank Research Observer 15, no. 2: 225–49. At http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/961231468336675195/Social-capital-implications-for-development-theory-research-and-policy, accessed December 7, 2017.Google Scholar
Zack-Williams, Alfred B. 1999. “Sierra Leone: The Political Economy of Civil War, 1991–98.” Third World Quarterly 20, no. 1: 143–62. doi: 10.1080/01436599913965.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Koos supplementary material

Koos supplementary material 1

Download Koos supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 4.8 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Koos supplementary material

Koos supplementary material 2

Download Koos supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 77.5 KB