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¹² A new (eleventh) autonomous okrug was created for the Even-Batagai district in Yakutia in October 1989; Pravda, October 30, 1989. Other changes are likely to follow.

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³¹ Rywkin, Michael, Moscow's Muslim Challenge (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1982), 121Google Scholar; Brown, B., “Kazkhstan in 1987: The Year after Alma Ata,” Radio Liberty Research Bulletin RL 5/88 (December 23, 1987), 2.Google Scholar See also Suny, Ronald Grigor, Armenia in the Twentieth Century (Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983), 78–80.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ Pravda, October 29, 1988.

⁴⁶ Spechler, Martin, “Regional Development in the USSR, 1958–1978,” in Soviet Economy in a Time of Change, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979), 145.Google Scholar See also Bahry, Donna and Nechemias, Carol, “Half Full or Half Empty? The Debate over Soviet Regional Inequality,” Slavic Review 40 (Fall 1981), 96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clayton, Elizabeth, “Regional Consumption Expenditure in the Soviet Union,” ACES Bulletin 17 (Winter 1975), 35–43Google Scholar; Gillula, James W., “The Economic Interdependence of Soviet Republics,” in Soviet Economy in a Time of Change, 629Google Scholar; Schroeder, Gertrude, “Soviet Regional Policies in Perspective,” in The USSR in the 1980s (Brussels: NATO Directorate of Economic Affairs, 1978), 131Google Scholar; Silver, Brian, “Levels of Sociocultural Development among Soviet Nationalities: A Partial Test of the Equalization Hypothesis,” American Political Science Review 68 (December 1974), 1637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁹ Popovsky (fn. 23), 138.

⁵⁰ Moscow Television, November 26, 1988, reported in FBIS, Daily Report: Soviet Union, November 28, 1988, p. 50.Google Scholar See also Critchlow, James, “How Solid is Uzbekistan's Support for Moscow?” Report on the USSR i (February 10, 1989), 7.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ Izvestiia, September II, 1988, August 3, 1989, August 15, 1989; Sovetskaia Industriia, March 2, 1989; Sovetskaia Litva, October 7, 1988. See also Izvestiia, May 19, 1989; Sovetskaia Litva, May 19, 1989; Pravda, July 30, 1989; Bungs, Dzintra, “A Comparison of the Baltic Declarations of Sovereignty,” Report on the USSR i (September 15, 1989), 13–16Google Scholar; Girnius, Kestutis, “The Lithuanian Communist Party and Calls for Sovereignty,” Report on the USSR i (February 17, 1989), 18–20.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ Pravda, July 20, 1988.

⁵⁸ On December i, 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian Republic and the National Council of Nagornyi Karabakh jointly passed a resolution annexing the autonomous oblast to Armenia; Kommunist [Erevan], December 3, 1989.

⁵⁹ Bakinskii Rabochii, March 11, 1988: Izvesttia, March 25, 1988; Krasnaia Zvezda, February 28, 1989; Moskovskie Novosti, March 20, 1988; Solchanyk, Roman and Sheehy, Ann, “Kapitonov on Nationality Problems in Georgia,” Radio Liberty Research Bulletin RL 125/78 (June 1, 1978), 1–5Google Scholar; Fuller, Elizabeth, “How Serious are Inter-Nationality Tensions in Georgia?” Radio Liberty Research Bulletin RL 444/83 (November 25, 1983), 1–9Google Scholar; idem, “Abkhaz-Georgian Relations Remain Strained,” Report on the USSR 1 (March 10, 1989), 25–27; Karklins, Rasma, “Ethnic Politics and Access to Higher Education: The Soviet Case,” Comparative Politics 16 (April 1984), 277–94, at 278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶¹ Koval'chenko, I. D. et al., “Natsional'nye protsessy v SSSR-itogi, tendentsii, problemy” [National processes in the USSR: Results, tendencies, problems], Istoriia SSSR (November–December 1987), 5–120, at 63, 73, 74, 79–80.Google Scholar See also Epstein, Erwin H., “Ideological Factors in Soviet Educational Policy towards Jews,” Education and Urban Society 10 (February 1978), 227–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Karklins, Rasma, Ethnic Relations in the USSR (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986), 142, 146, 219.Google Scholar

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⁶⁵ Suny (fn. 63), 213; Juris Dreifelds, “Latvian National Demands and Group Consciousness since 1959,” in Simmonds, George, ed., Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev and Kosygin (Detroit: University of Detroit Press, 1977), 136–56Google Scholar; Pennar, Jaan, “Nationalism in the Soviet Baltics,” in Goldhagen, Erich, ed., Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1968), 206.Google Scholar See also Pravda, March 1, 1989.

⁶⁶ Pravda, July 29, 1989, August 10, 1989. See also New York Times, June 21, 1988, June 22, 1988, June 23, 1988. After this was nullified by the All-Union Supreme Soviet Presidium, Estonia adopted new legislation requiring that candidates for republic positions must have been residents of Estonia for at least ten years; Pravda, November 18, 1989.

⁶⁷ Izvestiia, June 9, 1989, June 10, 1989, June 20, 1989, June 23, 1989, December 1, 1989; Pravda, June 5, 1989, June 6, 1989, June 7, 1989, June 10, 1989, June 12, 1989, June 20, 1989, June 25, 1989, January 17, 1990; Bohr, Annette, “Violence Erupts in Uzbekistan,” Report on the USSR 1 (June 16, 1989), 23–25Google Scholar; Sheehy, Ann, “Interethnic Disturbances in Western Kazakhstan,” Report on the USSR 1 (July 7, 1989), 11–14.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ This is not to say, as some have alleged, that the motive of the Party leaders was to instigate violence as a pretext for a military crackdown; New York Times, February 19, 1990. See also Izvestiia, January 15, 1990, January 16, 1990.

⁶⁹ Report on the USSR 1 (January 27, 1989), 29.

⁷⁰ Pravda, January 13, 1988, May 21, 1988, June 17, 1988, October 5, 1988, October 21, 1988, April 15, 1989, June 23, 1989, June 24, 1989, September 29, 1989, November 17, 1989.

⁷¹ Izvestiia, March 17 1989, May 25, 1989, August 23, 1989; Pravda, July 29, 1989, August 10, 1989, August 11, 1989, August 23, 1989, August 25, 1989, September 5, 1989; Sovetskaia Esloniia, March 1, 1989, March 7, 1989.

⁷² lzvestiia, July 13, 1989; Komsomol'skaia Pravda, March 3, 1989; Sovetskaia Litva, February 25, 1989.

⁷³ Quoted in Cockburn (fn. 41), 178.

⁷⁴ See Pravda, April 9, 1989, August 23, 1989, August 24, 1989, September 10, 1989, February 2, 1990; Zaria Vostoka, April 12, 1989, April 14, 1989; New York Times, August 28, 1989, August 29, 1989, August 30, 1989, September 1, 1989, September 17, 1989; Girnius, Saulius, “Sajudis’ Parliament Statement on Independence,” Report on the USSR 1 (September 15, 1989), 17–18.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ New York Times, March 13, 1990.

⁷⁶ Smith (fn. 7), 105. See also Connor, Walker, “Nation-Building or Nation-Destroying?” World Politics 24 (April 1972), 319–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Esman, Milton, ed., Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977);Google ScholarGeertz, Clifford, “The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States,” in Old Societies and New States (New York: Free Press, 1963), 105–57Google Scholar; Shils, Edward, “Primordial, Personal, Sacred, and Civil Ties,” British Journal of Sociology 8 (June 1957), 130–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁹ Rakowska-Harmstone, Teresa, “The Soviet Union,” in Wirsing, Robert G., ed., Protection of Ethnic Minorities: Comparative Perspectives (New York: Pergamon Press, 1981), 127.Google Scholar For a fine critical discussion of this approach, see Lapidus, Gail Warshofsky, “Ethnonationalism and Political Stability: The Soviet Case,” World Politics 36 (July 1984), 555–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁰ Karpat, , “Moscow and the ‘Muslim Question,’“Problems of Communism 32 (November–December 1983), 79.Google Scholar

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⁸² The paradigm might be “saved” by claiming that assertiveness of ethnic leaders in the Baltic, followed by such assertiveness in the Caucasus, is evidence of the relative levels of ethnic awareness in these lands. But in this sense the concept of relative levels of national consciousness is not a predictor of politicized ethnicity or part of a causal relationship; it is, rather, a description or definition.

⁸³ Suny (fn. 63), 220. This may also be true in many Western societies; see Mughan, Anthony, “Modernization and Ethnic Conflict in Belgium,” Political Studies 27 (March 1979), 21–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rogowski, , “Conclusion,” in Tiryakian and Rogowski (fn. 77), 374–76.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Karl W. Deutsch has noted that political systems also differ in the degree to which their institutions influence ethnic attitudes (particularly assimilation); see Deutsch, , Political Community at the International Level: Problems of Definition and Measurement (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954), 33, 39–40.Google Scholar The “new institutionalism” argues a more general case for the “endogeneity” of preferences; for example, James P. March and Johan P. Olsen argue that traditionally “political theory has treated political institutions as determining, ordering, or modifying individual motives”; see Olsen, March and, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989), 4–7, 154–56.Google Scholar For additional motives that incline ethnic elites toward intercommunity conflict regulation, see Nordlinger, Eric A., Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for International Affairs, 1972).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Illustrations of this approach include Allworth, Edward, “Restating the Soviet Nationality Question,” in Allworth, , ed., Soviet Nationality Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971);Google Scholard'Encausse, Helene Carrere, Decline of an Empire (New York: Newsweek Books, 1978)Google Scholar; Rakowska-Harmstone (fn. 79).

⁸⁶ Gorbachev's initial reponse to new elites such as Landsbergis and his Sajudis government has been consistent with the Soviet ethnic strategy that has emphasized institutional constraints to shape ethnic agendas. Using deterrent and compellent constraints, he has sought to induce the Lithuanian government to abandon its primordial agenda and pursue the instrumental objectives of perestroika within the context of Soviet federalism.

⁸⁷ Sidney Tarrow described how in democratic systems as well the strategies of regional leaders acting as brokers between center and periphery are shaped by bureaucratic institutions; see Tarrow, , Between Center and Periphery: Grassroots Politics in Italy and France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 7–8, 43–44.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Sovetskaia Latviia, March 19, 1989.

⁸⁹ Pravda, February 8, 1990, February 9, 1990: New York Times, March 24, 1990. In Lithuania, sensing the consequences of these institutional changes for their power, members of the republic Politburo, such as the prime minister of the Sajudis government, have also begun to resign from the Communist Party.

⁹⁰ New York Times, March 30, 1990.

⁹¹ New York Times, March 5, 1990, March 6, 1990, March 31, 1990.