¹ By capitalism I mean an economic system in which there exists: (1) market exchange of both products and factors of production; (2) in particular, private markets for labor; and (3) economic accumulation, thus securing the reproduction and expansion of the means of production.

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²³ There is evidence that extensive trade existed in precolonial Africa for agricultural products as well. See Jones, William O., “Agricultural Trade Within Tropical Africa: Historical Background,” in Bates, Robert H. and Lofchie, Michael, eds., Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa: Issues of Public Policy (New York: Praeger, 1980), 10–45.Google Scholar

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²⁹ Grier, Beverly, “Underdevelopment, Modes of Production, and the State in Colonial Ghana,” The African Studies Review 24 (March 1981), 35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For an excellent discussion of the issue of property rights, see also John Cohen, “Land Tenure and Rural Development in Africa,” in Bates and Lofchie (fn. 23).

³⁰ Grier (fn. 29), 33.

³¹ Quoted in Sorrenson, M.P.K., Land Reform in Kikuyu Country (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1967), 56.Google Scholar

³² Ibid, 20–21.

³³ Ibid., 58.

³⁴ See, for example, Hailey, Lord, An African Survey: Revised, 1956 (London: Oxford University Press, 1957)Google Scholar; Lugard, Frederick D., The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (London: F. Cass, 1965)Google Scholar; and Perham, Margery Freda, Native Administration in Nigeria (London: Oxford University Press, 1937).Google Scholar

³⁵ Meek, , Land Law and Custom in the Colonies (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), 10.Google Scholar

³⁶ Ibid., 193.

³⁷ Tignor, , “Colonial Chiefs in Chiefless Societies,” Journal of Modern African Studies 9 (1971), 350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Clough, Marshall, Chiefs and Politicians: Local Politics and Social Change in Kiambu, Kenya, 1918–1936, Ph.D. diss. (Stanford University, 1978).Google Scholar

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⁴¹ Excellent discussions are included in Berger, Elena L., Labour, Race and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Perrings, Charles, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1979)Google Scholar; Epstein, A. L., Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester: Manchester University Press for the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1958)Google Scholar; and Heisler, Helmuth, Urbanization and the Government of Migration (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1974).Google Scholar

⁴² For additional arguments, see Meillassoux, Claude, Maidens, Meal and Money: Capitalism and the Domestic Community (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981)Google Scholar; Wolpe, Harold, “Capitalism and Cheap Labour Power in South Africa,” Economy and Society 1 (No. 4, 1972), 425–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Palmer and Parsons (fn. 28). I differ from these approaches in my acknowledgement of the divergence of interests between the state and private enterprises, and in my conviction that the state was set upon solving its own fiscal problem by controlling the formation of land laws.

⁴³ Kay, , Social Aspects of Village Regrouping in Zambia (Lusaka: Institute for Social Research, University of Zambia, 1967), 11.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ibid., 10.

⁴⁵ In the case of Kenya, Sorrenson notes: “The Kikuyu did not live in villages, but in dispersed households. … During the Mau Mau Emergency the Kikuyu, the Embu and some of the Meru population were concentrated in 732 villages. …” Sorrenson (fn. 31), 3.

⁴⁶ The best studies are Freyhold, Michaela Von, Ujamaa Villages in Tanzania (New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1979)Google Scholar; McHenry, Dean E. Jr, Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, 1979)Google Scholar; and Hyden (fn. 19).

⁴⁷ Ibid., 98.

⁴⁸ See, for example, Mushi, Samuel S., “Modernization by Traditionalization: Ujamaa Principles Revisited,” Taamuli 1 (No. 2, March 1971).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ For further evidence concerning “state origins” of village communities and a brilliant exposition of this argument, see Popkin, Samuel L., The Rational Peasant (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Unversity of California Press, 1979).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Hyden (fn. 19).

⁵¹ See Bates, Robert H., Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981).Google Scholar

⁵² See, for example, the data contained in Government of Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, “Pricing Policy and Agricultural Production,” (Entebbe: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, August 1978).

⁵³ Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, in writing about precolonial African societies, defined the African mode of production as one in which states did not directly control producers (e.g., through enserfment or slavery), but controlled and manipulated trade in order to accumulate resources from them. Her analysis is at least as applicable, in my view, to contemporary Africa as it was to the precolonial period, and very likely more so. See Coquery-Vidrovitch, , “Recherches sur un mode de production Africain,” Le Peńsee 144 (1969), 61–78.Google Scholar