Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T09:39:15.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Government Policies, New Voter Coalitions, and the Emergence of Ethnic Dimension in Party Systems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2022

Maayan Mor Open the ORCID record for Maayan Mor [Opens in a new window]
Maayan Mor*
Affiliation:
IPERG, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
*
E-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Conventional theories of ethnic politics argue that political entrepreneurs form ethnic parties where there is ethnic diversity. Yet empirical research finds that diversity is a weak predictor for the success of ethnic parties. When does ethnicity become a major element of party competition? Scholars have explained the emergence of an ethnic dimension in party systems as the result of institutions, mass organizations, and elite initiatives. But these factors can evolve in response to an emerging ethnic coalition of voters. The author advances a new theory: ethnic cleavages emerge when voters seek to form a parliamentary opposition to government policies that create grievances along ethnic identities. The theory is tested on rare cases of government policies in Prussia between 1848 and 1874 that aggrieved Catholics but were not based on existing policies or initiated by entrepreneurs to encourage ethnic competition. Using process tracing, case comparisons, and statistical analysis of electoral returns, the author shows that Catholics voted together when aggrieved by policies, regardless of the actions of political entrepreneurs. In contrast, when policies were neutral to Catholics, the Catholic party dissolved.

Keywords

Catholic ChurchcausalityChristian Democracycleavagesdemocratizationelectionsethnic politicsGermanygovernment policiesidentitynineteenth centurynew partiesmixed methodsmobilizationpartiesparty system formationparty system changepolitical historyprocess tracingPrussiareligion and politicsvotingWestern Europe
Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 74 , Issue 1 , January 2022 , pp. 121 - 166
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 Trustees of Princeton University

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acemoglu, Daron, Cantoni, Davide, Johnson, Simon, and Robinson, James A.. 2011. “The Consequences of Radical Reform: The French Revolution.” American Economic Review 101, no. 7: 3286–307. At https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.7.3286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, Clark, Michael, Ezrow, Lawrence, and Glasgow, Garrett. 2004. “Understanding Change and Stability in Party Ideologies: Do Parties Respond to Public Opinion or to Past Election Results?” British Journal of Political Science 34, no. 4: 589–610. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123404000201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldrich, John H. 1995. Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amorim Neto, Octavio, and Cox, Gary W.. 1997. “Electoral Institutions, Cleavage Structures, and the Number of Parties.” American Journal of Political Science 41, no. 1: 149–74. At https://doi.org/10.2307/2111712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersen, Robert, and Yaish, Meir. 2003. “Social Cleavages, Electoral Reform and Party Choice: Israel's ‘Natural’ Experiment.” Electoral Studies 22, no. 3: 399–423. At https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(01)00055-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Eugene Newton. 1954. The Prussian Election Statistics, 1862 and 1863. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska–Lincoln.Google Scholar
Anderson, Eugene Newton. 1968. The Social and Political Conflict in Prussia, 1858–1864. New York, N.Y.: Octagon Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. 1981. Windthorst: A Political Biography. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. 1986. “The Kulturkampf and the Course of German History.” Central European History 19, no. 1: 82–115. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938900019154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. 1996. “Clerical Election Influence and Communal Solidarity: Catholic Political Culture in the German Empire, 1871–1914.” In Posada-Carbó, Eduardo, ed., Elections before Democracy: The History of Elections in Europe and Latin America. New York, N.Y.: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Art, David. 2018. “The AfD and the End of Containment in Germany?” German Politics and Society 36, no. 2: 76–86. At https://doi.org/10.3167/gps.2018.360205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachem, Karl. [1927] 1967. Vorgeschichte, Geschichte und Politik der deutschen Zentrumspartei. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der katholischen Bewegung sowie zur allgemeinen Geschichte des neueren und neuesten Deutschland, 1815–1914, bd. 2 [Background, History, and Politics of the German Center Party, and a Contribution to the History of the Catholic Movement and the General History of Modern and New Germany, 1815–1914, vol. 2]. Aalen, Germany: Scientia Verlag.Google Scholar
Bargsted, Matías A., and Somma, Nicolás M.. 2016. “Social Cleavages and Political Dealignment in Contemporary Chile, 1995–2009.” Party Politics 22, no. 1: 105–24. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068813514865.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 1974. “Ethnic Competition and Modernization in Contemporary Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 6, no. 4: 457–84. At https://doi.org/10.1177/001041407400600403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, Josef. 1973. Liberaler Staat und Kirche in der Ära von Reichsgründung und Kulturkampf: Geschichte und Strukturen ihres Verhältnisses in Baden, 1860–1876 [Liberal State and Church during the Founding of the German Empire and the Culture Struggle: The History and Structures of their Relationship in Baden, 1860–1876]. Mainz, Germany: Mattias-Grünewald-Verlag.Google Scholar
Becker, Sascha O., Cinnirella, Francesco, Hornung, Erik, and Woessmann, Ludger. 2014. “iPEHD - The ifo Prussian Economic History Database.” Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 47, no. 2: 57–66. At https://doi.org/10.1080/01615440.2013.852370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, Sascha O., and Woessmann, Ludger. 2008. “Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-Century Prussia.” Scandinavian Journal of Economics 110, no. 4: 777–805. At https://ftp.iza.org/dp3837.pdf, accessed November 11, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, Andrew, and Checkel, Jeffrey T.. 2014. “Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practices.” In Bennett, Andrew and Checkel, Jeffrey T., eds., Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackbourn, David. 1988. “Progress and Piety: Liberalism, Catholicism and the State in Imperial Germany.” History Workshop Journal 26, no. 1: 57–78. At https://doi.org/10.1093/hwj/26.1.57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boix, Carles. 2011. “The Rise of Social Democracy.” Manuscript, Princeton University. At https://www.princeton.edu/~cboix/THE%20RISE%20OF%20SOCIAL%20DEMOCRACY.pdf, accessed June 25, 2021.Google Scholar
Borz, Gabriela, and de Miguel, Carolina. 2019. “Organizational and Ideological Strategies for Nationalization: Evidence from European Parties.” British Journal of Political Science 49, no. 4: 1499–526. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712341700028X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooke, Steven. 2017. “From Medicine to Mobilization: Social Service Provision and the Islamist Reputational Advantage.” Perspectives on Politics 15, no. 1: 42–61. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592716004126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buggle, Johannes C. 2016. “Law and Social Capital: Evidence from the Code Napoleon in Germany.” European Economic Review 87: 148–75. At https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2016.05.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Andrea Louise. 2012. “Policy Makes Mass Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 15: 333–51. At https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-012610-135202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2006. “What is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter?” Annual Review of Political Science 9: 397–424. At https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan, and Wilkinson, Steven. 2008. “Measuring the Effect of ‘Ethnicity.’” Comparative Political Studies 41, no. 4–5: 515–63. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414007313240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhibber, Pradeep K. 1999. Democracy without Associations: Transformation of the Party System and Social Cleavages in India. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhibber, Pradeep K., and Petrocik, John R.. 1989. “The Puzzle of Indian Politics: Social Cleavages and the Indian Party System.” British Journal of Political Science 19, no. 2: 191–210. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400005433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collier, David. 2011. “Understanding Process Tracing.” PS: Political Science & Politics 44, no. 4: 823–30. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096511001429.Google Scholar
Converse, Philip E. 2006. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics (1964).” Critical Review 18, no. 1–3: 1–74. At https://doi.org/10.1080/08913810608443650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, Gary W. 1997. Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 1966. “Some Explanations.” In Dahl, Robert A., ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1994. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dewan, Torun, Meriläinen, Jaakko, and Tukiainen, Janne. 2020. “Victorian Voting: The Origins of Party Orientation and Class Alignment.” American Journal of Political Science 64, no. 4: 869–86. At https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dix, Robert H. 1989. “Cleavage Structures and Party Systems in Latin America.” Comparative Politics 22, no. 1: 23–37. At https://doi.org/10.2307/422320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duverger, Maurice. 1954. Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State. Trans. North, Barbara and North, Robert. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Eifert, Benn, Miguel, Edward, and Posner, Daniel N.. 2010. “Political Competition and Ethnic Identification in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 54, no. 2: 494–510. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00443.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elff, Martin. 2007. “Social Structure and Electoral Behavior in Comparative Perspective: The Decline of Social Cleavages in Western Europe Revisited.” Perspectives on Politics 5, no. 2: 277–94. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592707070788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elischer, Sebastian. 2013. Political Parties in Africa: Ethnicity and Party Formation. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Ellen Lovell. 1981. The German Center Party, 1870–1933: A Study in Political Catholicism. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Ellen Lovell. 1999. The Cross and the Ballot: Catholic Political Parties in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands, 1785–1985. Boston, Mass.: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and de Graaf, Nan Dirk, eds. 2013. Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and Mellon, Jonathan. 2019. “Immigration, Euroscepticism, and the Rise and Fall of UKIP.” Party Politics 25, no. 1: 76–87. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068818816969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and Tilley, James. 2011. “How Parties Shape Class Politics: Explaining the Decline of the Class Basis of Party Support.” British Journal of Political Science 42, no. 1: 137–61. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123411000202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, Karen, Gibson, Clark, and Hoffman, Barak. 2019. “Why the Salience of Social Divisions Matters in Party Systems: Testing the Interactive Hypothesis in South Africa.” Party Politics 25, no. 2: 208–20. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068817705124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, Karen, and Horowitz, Jeremy. 2010. “Ties that Bind? The Rise and Decline of Ethno-Regional Partisanship in Malawi, 1994–2009.” Democratization 17, no. 3: 534–63. At https://doi.org/10.1080/13510341003700394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2016. “Weapons of the Meek: How Churches Influence Public Policy.” World Politics 68, no. 1 (January): 1–36. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887115000301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, Joel F., and Smith, Helmut Walser. 1997. “Confessionalization, Community, and State Building in Germany, 1555–1870.” Journal of Modern History 69, no. 1: 77–101. At https://doi.org/10.1086/245441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haunfelder, Bernd. 1994. Biographisches Handbuch für das preussische Abgeordnetenhaus, 1849–1867. (Handbücher zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus und der politischen Parteien, bd. 5) [Biographical Handbook of the Prussian House of Representatives, 1849–1867. (Handbooks of the History of Parliamentarism and Political Parties, vol. 5)]. Düsseldorf, Germany: Droste.Google Scholar
Healy, Róisín. 2003. The Jesuit Specter in Imperial Germany. Studies in Central European Histories, vol. 28. Boston, Mass.: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hicken, Allen. 2009. Building Party Systems in Developing Democracies. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hohmann, Friedrich Gerhard. 1964. “Die Soester Konferenzen 1864–1866: Zur Vorgeschichte der Zentrumspartei in Westfalen” [The Soest Conferences 1864–1866: The Background of the Center Party in Westphalia]. Westfälische Zeitschrift 114: 293–342. At https://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/txt/wz-4390.pdf, accessed June 25, 2021.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Huber, John D. 2012. “Measuring Ethnic Voting: Do Proportional Electoral Laws Politicize Ethnicity?” American Journal of Political Science 56, no. 4: 986–1001. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2012.00601.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, John D. 2017. Exclusion by Elections: Inequality, Ethnic Identity, and Democracy. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, Simon. 1991. “Roman Catholicism and the Prussian State in the Early 1850s.” Central European History 24, no. 2–3: 95–121. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938900018884.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ishiyama, John, and Stewart, Brandon. 2021. “Organization and the Structure of Opportunities: Understanding the Success of Ethnic Parties in Postcommunist Europe.” Party Politics 27, no. 1: 69–80. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068819864089.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 1996. The Rise of Christian Democracy in Europe. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N., and van Kersbergen, Kees. 2010. “Christian Democracy.” Annual Review of Political Science 13: 183–209. At https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.021406.172506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karch, Brendan. 2018. Nation and Loyalty in a German-Polish Borderland: Upper Silesia, 1848–1960. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert P. 1992. “The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe.” Politics & Society 20, no. 1: 7–50. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329292020001003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert P. 1994. The Transformation of European Social Democracy. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert P. 1995. “Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions.” Party Politics 1, no. 4: 447–72. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068895001004002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koter, Dominika. 2013. “King Makers: Local Leaders and Ethnic Politics in Africa.” World Politics 65, no. 2: 187–232. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S004388711300004X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kühne, Thomas. 1994. Handbuch der Wahlen zum preussischen Abgeordnetenhaus, 1867–1918: Wahlergebnisse, Wahlbündnisse und Wahlkandidaten. (Handbücher zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus und der politischen Parteien, bd. 6) [Handbook of the Elections to the Prussian House of Representatives, 1867–1918: Election Results, Electoral Alliances, and Candidates. (Handbooks of the History of Parliamentarism and Political Parties, vol. 6)]. Düsseldorf, Germany: Droste.Google Scholar
Laitin, David D. 1985. “Hegemony and Religious Conflict: British Imperial Control and Political Cleavages in Yorubaland.” In Evans, Peter B., Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda, eds., Bringing the State Back In. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lamberti, Marjorie. 1989. State, Society, and the Elementary School in Imperial Germany. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaPalombara, Joseph, and Weiner, Myron. 1966. “The Origin and Development of Political Parties.” In LaPalombara, Joseph and Weiner, Myron, eds., Political Parties and Political Development. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeBas, Adrienne. 2011. From Protest to Parties: Party-Building and Democratization in Africa. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerman, Katharine Anne. 2004. Bismarck: Profiles in Power. Oxon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A.. 2002. “Elections Without Democracy: The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2: 51–65. At https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, Evan S., and McClendon, Gwyneth H.. 2013. “The Ethnicity–Policy Preference Link in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 46, no. 5: 574–602. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012463876.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, Evan S., and Singh, Prerna. 2012. “The Institutional Origins of Ethnic Violence.” Comparative Politics 45, no. 1: 1–24. At https://doi.org/10.5129/001041512802822860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, Evan S., and Singh, Prerna. 2017. “Census Enumeration and Group Conflict: A Global Analysis of the Consequences of Counting.” World Politics 69, no. 1 (January): 1–53. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887116000198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 1979. “Religious vs. Linguistic vs. Class Voting: The ‘Crucial Experiment’ of Comparing Belgium, Canada, South Africa, and Switzerland.” American Political Science Review 73, no. 2: 442–58. At https://doi.org/10.2307/1954890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 1984. Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1960. “Party Systems and the Representation of Social Groups.” European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie 1, no. 1: 50–85. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975600000059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Rokkan, Stein. 1967. “Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments: An Introduction.” In Lipset, Seymour Martin and Rokkan, Stein, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives. New York, N.Y.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Loth, Wilfried. 2015. “Katholische Milieubildung, katholische Subgesellschaft und Zentrumspartei: Eine Bilanz” [Catholic Milieu Formation, Catholic Subculture, and the Center Party: An Appraisal]. In Linsenmann, Andreas and Raasch, Markus, eds., Die Zentrumspartei im Kaiserreich: Bilanz und Perspektiven [The Center Party in Imperial Germany: Reappraisal and Perspectives]. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff.Google Scholar
Lublin, David. 2017. “Electoral Systems, Ethnic Heterogeneity and Party System Fragmentation .” British Journal of Political Science 47, no. 2: 373–89. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123415000137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupu, Noam. 2015. “Parties and Party Systems.” In Gandhi, Jennifer and Rufino, Rubén Ruiz-, eds., Routledge Handbook of Comparative Political Institutions. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lupu, Noam, and Riedl, Rachel Beatty. 2013. “Political Parties and Uncertainty in Developing Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 46, no. 11: 1339–65. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012453445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyall, Jason. 2014. “Process Tracing, Causal Inference, and Civil War.” In Bennett, Andrew and Checkel, Jeffrey T., eds., Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mares, Isabela. 2015. From Open Secrets to Secret Voting: Democratic Electoral Reforms and Voter Autonomy. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masoud, Tarek. 2014. Counting Islam: Religion, Class, and Elections in Egypt. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCauley, John F. 2014. “The Political Mobilization of Ethnic and Religious Identities in Africa.” American Political Science Review 108, no. 4: 801–16. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meguid, Bonnie M. 2005. “Competition Between Unequals: The Role of Mainstream Party Strategy in Niche Party Success.” American Political Science Review 99, no. 3: 347–59. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055405051701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mergel, Thomas. 1996. “Ultramontanism, Liberalism, Moderation: Political Mentalities and Political Behavior of the German Catholic Bürgertum, 1848–1914.” Central European History 29, no. 2: 151–74. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938900012991.Google Scholar
Mor, Maayan. 2021. “Replication data for: Government Policies, New Voter Coalitions, and the Emergence of an Ethnic Dimension in Party Systems.” Harvard Dataverse, V1. At https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IECK9V.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mor, Maayan. 2022. “Supplementary material for: Government Policies, New Voter Coalitions, and the Emergence of an Ethnic Dimension in Party Systems.” At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887121000228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffar, Shaheen, Scarritt, James R., and Galaich, Glen. 2003. “Electoral Institutions, Ethnopolitical Cleavages, and Party Systems in Africa's Emerging Democracies.” American Political Science Review 97, no. 3: 379–90. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakai, Ryo. 2014. “The Influence of Party Competition on Minority Politics: A Comparison of Latvia and Estonia.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13, no. 1: 57–85. At https://www.ecmi.de/fileadmin/downloads/publications/JEMIE/2014/Nakai.pdf, accessed June 25, 2021.Google Scholar
Ordeshook, Peter C., and Shvetsova, Olga V.. 1994. “Ethnic Heterogeneity, District Magnitude, and the Number of Parties.” American Journal of Political Science 38, no. 1: 100–23. At https://doi.org/10.2307/2111337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pallister, Kevin. 2013. “Why No Mayan Party? Indigenous Movements and National Politics in Guatemala.” Latin American Politics and Society 55, no. 3: 117–38. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2013.00205.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Bae-Gyoon. 2003. “Territorialized Party Politics and the Politics of Local Economic Development: State-Led Industrialization and Political Regionalism in South Korea.” Political Geography 22, no. 8: 811–39. At https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-6298(03)00102-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2003. “The Colonial Origins of Ethnic Cleavages: The Case of Linguistic Divisions in Zambia.” Comparative Politics 35, no. 2: 127–46. At https://doi.org/10.2307/4150148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2004. “The Political Salience of Cultural Difference: Why Chewas and Tumbukas Are Allies in Zambia and Adversaries in Malawi.” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4: 529–45. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055404041334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2007. “Regime Change and Ethnic Cleavages in Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 11: 1302–27. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006291832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rae, Douglas W., and Taylor, Michael. 1970. The Analysis of Political Cleavages. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Rathgeber, Christina. 2016. Von der Kirchengesellschaft zur Kirche in der Gesellschaft: Frömmigkeit, staatliches Handeln und die frühe Politisierung preußischer Katholiken (1815–1871). Preußen als Kulturstaat, bd. 8 [From Church Society to Church in Society: Piety, State Actions, and the Early Politicization of Prussian Catholics (1815–1871). Prussia as Cultural State, vol. 8]. Berlin, Germany, and Boston, Mass.: De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Rice, Roberta, and Van Cott, Donna Lee. 2006. “The Emergence and Performance of Indigenous Peoples’ Parties in South America: A Subnational Statistical Analysis.” Comparative Political Studies 39, no. 6: 709–32. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414005285036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ricks, Jacob I., and Liu, Amy H.. 2018. “Process-Tracing Research Designs: A Practical Guide.” PS: Political Science & Politics 51, no. 4: 842–46. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096518000975.Google Scholar
Roehner, Bertrand M. 1997. “Jesuits and the State: A Comparative Study of their Expulsions (1590–1990).” Religion 27, no. 2: 165–82. At https://doi.org/10.1006/reli.1996.0048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogowski, Ronald. 1990. Commerce and Coalitions: How Trade Affects Domestic Political Alignments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schattschneider, Elmer Eric. 1935. Politics, Pressures and the Tariff. New York, N.Y.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Shayo, Moses. 2009. “A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy: Nation, Class, and Redistribution.” American Political Science Review 103, no. 2: 147–74. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055409090194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shefter, Martin. 1977. “Party and Patronage: Germany, England, and Italy.” Politics & Society 7, no. 4: 403–51. At https://doi.org/10.1177/003232927700700402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan, and Ziblatt, Daniel. 2013. “The Enduring Indispensability of the Controlled Comparison.” Comparative Political Studies 46, no. 10: 1301–27. At https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012472469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperber, Jonathan. 1984. Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sperber, Jonathan. 1997. The Kaiser's Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoll, Heather. 2011. “Dimensionality and the Number of Parties in Legislative Elections.” Party Politics 17, no. 3: 405–29. At https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068809346263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoll, Heather. 2013. Changing Societies, Changing Party Systems. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torcal, Mariano, and Mainwaring, Scott. 2003. “The Political Recrafting of Social Bases of Party Competition: Chile, 1973–95.” British Journal of Political Science 33, no. 1: 55–84. At https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123403000036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Cott, Donna Lee. 2003. “Institutional Change and Ethnic Parties in South America.” Latin American Politics and Society 45, no. 2: 1–39. At https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00239.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Cott, Donna Lee. 2005. From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Evera, Stephen. 1997. Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Vogt, Manuel. 2016. “A New Dawn? Indigenous Movements and Ethnic Inclusion in Latin America.” International Studies Quarterly 60, no. 4: 790–801. At https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqw020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yashar, Deborah J. 2005. Contesting Citizenship in Latin America: The Rise of Indigenous Movements and the Postliberal Challenge. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaks, Sherry. 2017. “Relationships Among Rivals (RAR): A Framework for Analyzing Contending Hypotheses in Process Tracing.” Political Analysis 25, no. 3: 344–62. At https://doi.org/10.1017/pan.2017.12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziblatt, Daniel. 2017. Conservative Parties and the Birth of Democracy. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zielinski, Jakub. 2002. “Translating Social Cleavages into Party Systems: The Significance of New Democracies.” World Politics 54, no. 2 (January): 184–211. At https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2002.0005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Mor Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IECK9V
Link
Supplementary material: PDF

Mor supplementary material

Mor supplementary material

Download Mor supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 2.6 MB