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³ See, for example, Brzezinski, Zbigniew and Huntington, Samuel P., Political Power: USA/USSR (New York: Viking Press, 1964)Google Scholar, and Kassof, Allen, “The Administered Society: Totalitarianism Without Terror,” World Politics 16 (July 1964), 558–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a more recent defense of the totalitarian model, see Odom, William E., “A Dissenting View of the Group Approach to Soviet Politics,” World Politics 28 (July 1976), 542–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ See, for example, Friedgut, Theodore H., “Interests and Groups in Soviet Policymaking: The MTS Reforms,” Soviet Studies 28 (October 1976), 524–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kelley, Donald R., “Environmental Policymaking in the USSR: The Role of Industrial and Environmental Interest Groups,” Soviet Studies 28 (October 1976), 570–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stewart, Philip D., “Soviet Interest Groups and the Policy Process,” World Politics 22 (October 1969), 29–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mills, Richard, “The Formation of the Virgin Lands Policy,” Slavic Review 29 (March 1970), 58–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Barry, Donald D., “The Specialist in Soviet Policy-making: The Adoption of a Law,” Soviet Studies 16 (October 1964), 152–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸ “Kollegiya,” Sovetsky entsiklopedicheskiy slovar [Soviet Encyclopedie Dictionary] (Moscow: Izdatelstvo “Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya,” 1980), 608. See also Sorokin, V. D. and Shmelev, Yu. Ye., “Kollegialnost i yedinonachaliye v rabote sovetskogo gosudarstvennogo apparata,” [Collegiality and One-Man Command in the Work of the Soviet State Apparatus] in Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i pravo (No. 6, 1955), 8–16Google Scholar, and Kozlov, Yu. M. and others, eds., Gosudarstvennoye upravleniye i administrativnoye pravo [State Administration and Administrative Law] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1978), 172–74.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Vasilenkov, P. T., ed., Sovetskoye administrativnoye pravo [Soviet Administrative Law] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1981), 375.Google Scholar

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¹² See, for example, the legal charter for ministries, “Obshcheye polozheniye o ministerstvakh SSSR,” July 10, 1967, in Resheniya partii i pravitelstva po khozyaystvennym voprosam [Decisions of the Party and Government on Economic Questions] (1917–1967 g) Vol. II (Moscow: Politizdat, 1968), 494–517. The relevant portions of the statute are Numbers 13–18.

¹³ Svod zakpnov Rossiyskpy Imperii [Code of Laws of the Russian Empire] (St. Petersburg, 1912), Vol. I, Part 2, Book 5. See also Korkunov, N. M., Russkoye gosudarstvennoye pravo [Russian State Law] Vol. II (St. Petersburg, 1913), 384–405.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ “Postanovleniye sovnarkhoma i TsK VKP(b) ob obrazovanii kollegiy pri narkhomatakh SSSR” [Resolution of the USSR Council of Peoples' Commissars and Central Committee of the Bolshevik Communist Party on the Formation of Collegiums Attached to Peoples' Commissariats] March 13, 1938, in Direkfivy KPSS i Sovetskogo pravitelstva po khozyaystvennym voprosam. Sbornik dokumentov [Directives of the CPSU and Soviet Government on Economic Questions. Collection of Documents] (Moscow: Politizdat, 1957), 531–32.

¹⁶ Davitnidze, I. L., Kolleggii ministerstv [Ministry Collegiums] (Moscow: Yuridlit, 1972), 52–54.Google Scholar

¹⁷ On the role of the Central Committee, see Löwenhardt, John, The Soviet Politburo (Edinburgh, Scotland: Canongate, 1982), 9–50Google Scholar; Rodionov (fn. 9), 68–133. On the Council of People's Commissars, see Predsedatel sovnarkhoma i soveta oborony. Ocherki gosudarstvennoy deyatelnosti v iyule 1918-marte 1920 g [Chairman of the Sovnarkhom and Defense Council. Sketches of State Activities from July 1918 to March 1920] (Leningrad: Nauka, 1980).

¹⁸ Otdel po voprosam raboty sovetov prezidiuma verkhovnogo Soveta RSFSR, Itogi i sostav deputatov trudyashchsya RSFSR 1973 g [Results and Composition of Workers Deputies of RSFSR in 1973] (Moscow: Sovetskaya Rossiya, 1973), 212–13, 226–27.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Gryaznov, B. A. and Vinogradov, N. N., Partiynaya organizatsiya stolitsy i sovety [The Party Organization of the Capital and the Soviets] (Moscow: Moskovskiy Rabochiy, 1974), 91–92Google Scholar; Orlov, I. M., Partinoye rukovodstvo mestnymi sovetami [Party Direction of Local Soviets] (Moscow: “Vysshaya Shkola,” 1982), 123Google Scholar; Hough (fn. 6), 333; Taubman, William, Governing Soviet Cities: Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1973), 49–51Google Scholar; Moses, Joel C., Regional Party Leadership and Policymaking in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1974), 160–67Google Scholar; Cattell, David, Leningrad: A Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York: Praeger, 1968), 38–40.Google Scholar

²⁰ “Obshcheye polozheniye …” (fn 12), article 15. Individual ministry charters generally follow this pattern. See, for example, “Polozheniye o ministerstve khimicheskoy promyshlennosti,” February 10, 1976, Sobraniye postanovleniy pravitelstva SSSR [Collection of Resolutions of the USSR Government] (No. 6, 1976), 130–35.

²¹ On representation of republic ministries in national-level ministerial collegia, see Da-vitnidze (fn. 16), 65–70.

²² “Polozheniye o ministerstve zdravookhraneniye,” July 17, 1968, Sobraniye postanovleniye pravitelstva SSSR (No. 14, 1968), 350–57; “Polozheniye o ministerstve meditsinskoy pro-myshlennosti,” ibid. (No. 12, 1968), 282–88. See also Kal'yu, P. I., Nekotoryye voprosy teorii i praktiki upravleniya zdravookhraneniyem [Some Questions of the Theory and Practice of Health Administration] (Moscow: Meditsina, 1969), 121.Google Scholar

²³ “Polozheniye o ministerstve prosveshcheniya SSSR,” Sobraniye postanovleniye pravitelstva SSSR (No. 2, 1969), 55–62.

²⁴ Lunev, A. Ye.. “Sovershenstvovat pravovy status i koordinatsiyu deyatelnosti ministerstv” [Improve the Legal Status and Coordination of Activity of Ministries] Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i pravo (No. 1, 1966), 8–16Google Scholar; Lunev, “O dalneyshem razvitii demokratii v sovetskom gosudarstvennom upravlenii” [On Further Development of Democracy in Soviet State Administration], ibid. (No. 7, 1962), 25–34; Davitnidze (fn. 16), 67–70.

²⁵ Ibid., 61–62.

²⁶ Kozlov, Yu. M., ed., Pravovoye polozheniye ministerstv SSSR [Legal Status of USSR Ministries] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1971), 47.Google Scholar On this point, see also Davitnidze (fn. 16), 59; Yershov, V. N., “K voprosu o pravovom regulirovanii deyatelnosti ministerstv” [To the Question of Legal Regulation of Ministry Activity] Sovestskoye gosudarstvo i pravo (No. 3, 1967), 13–22Google Scholar; Yu. M. Kozlov, “Sootnosheniye kollegialnosti i yedinonachaliya v sovetskom gosudarstvennom upravlenii na sovremennom etape” [Correlation of Collegiality and One-Man Command in Soviet State Administration at the Present Stage], ibid. (No. 2, 1964), 24–34.

²⁷ On principles governing economic planning in socialist systems, see Bor, M. Z. and Lukina, G. V., eds., Planirovaniye narodnogo khozyaystvo SSSR [Planning the USSR State Economy] (Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola, 1980), 5–34.Google Scholar On planning by administrative agencies, see Azovkin, I. A., “Politicheskiye printsipy gosudarstvennogo upravleniya” [Political Principles of State Administration] Apparat upravleniya sotsialisticheskogo gosudarstva [Administrative Apparatus of the Socialist Government], Part 1 (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1976), 109–52Google Scholar, and R. Venkh and Sh. Yelovitskiy, “Planirovaniye raboty v organe gosudarstvennogo upravleniya” [Planning Work in State Administrative Agencies], ibid., Part 2 (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1977), 273–84.

²⁸ On rules governing Politburo agendas, see Löwenhardt (fn. 17), 90–95. The discussion of agenda building in ministry collegia is based primarily on Davitnidze (fn. 16), 122–28.

²⁹ Material on agenda building in local government executive committees is available in Butko, I. F. and others, Ispolnitelnyy komitet mestnogo soveta narodnykh deputatov (Problemy sovershenstvovaniya organizatsii deyatelnosti) [Local Council Executive Committee] (Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1980), 222–24, 284–91Google Scholar; Baymakhanov, M. T. and others, Gosudarstvenno-pravovoy status oblastnykh sovetov Kazakhskoy SSR [State-Legal Status of Oblast Councils in Kazakhstan] (Alma Ata: Izdatelstvo ‘Nauka’ Kazakhskoy SSR, 1976), 319–31Google Scholar; Popova, S. M., Organizatsiya raboty v ispolkomakh mestnykh sovetov [Organization of Work in Local Government Executive Committees] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1976), 72–84Google Scholar; Nagornaya, M. A., Planirovaniye raboty mestnykh sovetov [Planning Work of Local Councils] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1977), 20–21, 26–27Google Scholar; Tkachenko, N. G., Ispolnitelnyy komitet rayonnogo, gorodskogo sovrta [The Executive Committee of the Rayon and City Council] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1973), 30–43Google Scholar; Demochkin, N. N., Vlast naroda, For-mirovaniye, sostav i deyatelnost sovetov v ushviyakh razvitogo sotsializma [Power of the People. The Formation, Composition and Activity of Councils under Conditions of Developed Socialism] (Moscow: Mysl, 1979), 234–35Google Scholar; and Starovoytov, N. G., Reglament soveta i yego ispolkoma [Regulations of the Council and Its Executive Committee] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1982), 49–61.Google Scholar

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³¹ Bykovskiy, D. Ya., Organizatsiya raboty ispolkomov mestnykh sovetov [Organization of Work in Local Council Executive Committees] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1968), 5–14.Google Scholar

³² This description of the formulation of meeting plans in ministry collegia is based on Davitnidze (fn. 16), 122–28.

³³ Baymakhanov (fn. 29), 323–24. See also “Reglament raboty apparata ispolnitelnogo komiteta moskovskogo oblastnogo soveta deputatov trudyashchikhsya,” March 3, 1977, in Sovety naraodnykh deputatov. Status. Kompetentsiya. Organizatsiya deyatelnosti [Councils of Peoples' Deputies. Status. Competence. Organization of Activity] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1980), 265–76.

³⁴ On review of executive committee agenda plans by the regional Party apparatus, see Dmitriyev, A. V., Sekretar ispolkoma rayonnogo, gorodskogo soveta [Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Rayon or City Council] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1976), 24–26Google Scholar; Paputin, V., “Partiynoye rukovodstvo sovetami” [Party Direction of Soviets] in Sovershenstvovat rabotu sovetov deputatov trudyashchikhsya [Improve Work of Councils of Workers' Deputies] (Moscow: Izvestiya, 1970), 202–18Google Scholar; Barabashev, G. V., ed., Ispolnitelnyy komitet mestnogo Soveta narodnikh deputatov: Pravovoye polozheniye. Osnovy organizatsii i deyatelnosti [The Executive Committee of the Local Council] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1983), 70–71Google Scholar; and Gryaznov and Vinogradov (fn. 19), 104–05.

³⁵ Pertsik, V. A. and Kazannik, A. I., “O povyshenii effektivnosti deyatelnosti ispolkomov mestnykh sovetov” [On Improving the Effectiveness of the Executive Committee of Local Councils], in Voprosy sovetskogo gosudantvovedeniya. Trudy. [Questions of Soviet State Government. Works.) Vol. LXXI, Legal Series, No. 10 (Irkutsk: Irkutskiy gosudarstvennyy universiteta imeni A. A. Zhdanova, 1970), 14–22.Google Scholar

³⁶ The controversy generated by acceptance of commission decisions is a commonplace in Soviet administrative literature. See, for example, Ekonomicheskaya gazeta (No. 6, 1982), 24.

³⁷ The most comprehensive data on the subjects covered at ministry collegium meetings are provided in Davitnidze (fn. 16), 72–111. For specifics on the breakdown of items on the Ministry of Heavy, Energy, and Transport Machine Building, see pp. 86, 94, 102, 106, and 110. On issues covered by the Turkmenistan Ministry of Agriculture Collegium, see Tyllayev, M., “Organizatsiya raboty ministerstva selskogo khozyaystva soyuznoy respubliki” [Organization of Work of a Republic Ministry of Agriculture] Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta (Pravo) (No. 4, 1975), 62–68.Google Scholar

³⁸ Davitnidze (fn. 16), 22–24. See also Smirtyukov, M. S., Sovetskiy gosudarstvennyy apparat upravleniya [Soviet State Administrative Apparatus] (Moscow: Yuridicheskaya Literatura, 1982), 171–82.Google Scholar

³⁹ “Ob organizatsii raboty v sovete ministrov SSSR,” USSR Council of Ministers' resolution, May 4, 1955, excerpted in Svod zakonov [Code of Laws], Vol. 1, 643–46 (author's translation). See also “Ob organizatsii raboty v sovete ministrov kazakhskoy SSR,” June 4, 1955, excerpted in Spravochnik sovetskogo rabotnika [Handbook of the Government Worker] (Alma Ata: Kazakhskoye Gosudarstvennoye Izdatelstvo, 1962), 14–17.

⁴⁰ Krasnaya zvezda, December 11, 1982, p. 1; Pravda, December 17, 1982, p. 1; January 1, 1983, p. 1; January 15, 1983, p. 1; January 21, 1983, p. 1; January 29, 1983, p. 1; February 4, 1983, p. 1; February 13, 1983, p. 1; February 18, 1983, p. 1; February 25, 1983; p. 1; March 4, 1983, p. 1; March 11, 1983, p. 1; March 25, 1983, p. 1; April 2, 1983, p. 1; April 9, 1983, p. 1; April 15, 1983, p. 1; April 22, 1983, p. 1; April 30, 1983, p. 1; May 14, 1983, p. 1; May 20, 1983, p. 1; May 27, 1983, p. 1; June 11, 1983, p. 1; June 25, 1983, p. 1; July 1, 1983, p. 1; July 9, 1983, p. 1; July 16, 1983, p. 1; July 30, 1983, p. 1; August 6, 1983, p. 1; August 13, 1983, p. 1; August 20, 1983, p. 1; August 27, 1983, p. 1; September 3, 1983, p. 1. Historical material on Politburo operations is drawn from Löwenhardt (fn. 17), 93–95.

⁴¹ See, for example, “O poryadke podgotovki proyektov, resheniy i rasporyazheniy ispolkoma mossoveta,” October 19, 1964, Byulleten ispolnitelnogo komiteta moskovskogo gorodskogo soveta deputatov trudyashchikhsya (No. 21, 1964), 8–10, and Shekhovtsov, V. A., “Sovershenstvovaniye podgotovki zasedaniy ispolnitelnykh komitetov krayevykh, oblastnykh sovetov” [lmprovement of Meeting Preparation of Executive Committees in Krays and Oblasts], Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Series 11 (Pravo) (No. 5, 1982), 63–69.Google Scholar

⁴² See, for example, the description of Czech and Soviet defense decision making in Jan Sejna (with Joseph Douglas), “Czech and Soviet Decision Process,” unpub. (Arlington, VA, September 1, 1980).

⁴³ Brezhnev, L. I., “Otchet tsentalnogo komiteta KPSS XXVI s'yezdu kommunisticheskoy partii sovetskogo soyuza” [Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 26th CPSU Congress] in XXVI S'yezd Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. Stenograficheskiy otchet [26th CPSU Congress. Stenographic Record], Vol. 1 (Moscow: Politizdat, 1981), 20–99.Google Scholar Brezhnev's remarks on Politburo operations are on page 88. See also Shabad, Theodore, “Brezhnev, Who Ought to Know, Explains Politburo,” New York Times, June 15, 1973, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Likhova, N. V., “Organizatsiya rabot po sozdaniyu obyedineniy v otrasli,” [Organization of Work for Creation of Associations in a Branch] in Organizatsiya upravleniya [Organization of Administration] (Moscow: Ekonomika, 1973), 107–16.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See “Ob organizatsii …” (fn. 39).

⁴⁶ Smirtyukov (fn. 38), 183–84, 188–89.

⁴⁷ Material on the conduct of ministry collegium meetings was drawn from Davitnidze (fn. 16), 128–51. On local government executive committee meetings, see Baymakhanov, (fn. 29), 323–26Google Scholar; Butko (fn. 29), 284–86; “Reglament raboty …” (fn. 33), section III; Barabashev and Sheremet (fn. 7), 331–37; Tkachenko (fn. 29), 44–55; Volkov, N. A., Ispolnitelnyy apparat mestnykh sovetov deputatov trudyashchikhsya (Osnovnyye voprosy organizatsii i deyatelnosti) [Executive Apparatus of Local Councils] (Kazan: Izdatelstvo Kazanskogo Universiteta, 1968), 47–49.Google Scholar On Council of Ministers Presidium meetings, see Smirtyukov (fn. 38), 188–89.

⁴⁸ Pravda, March 11, 1983, p. 1.

⁴⁹ Löwenhardt (fn. 17), 98–102.

⁵⁰ Shabad (fn. 43).

⁵¹ Ageyeva, Ye. A., Formy upravlencheskoy deyatelnosti ispolkomov mestnykh sovetov [Forms of Administrative Activity of Local Council Executive Committees] (Moscow: Yuridiche-skaya Literatura, 1973), 35Google Scholar; translation by the present author.

⁵² On the “right of appeal” of members of the VPO councils of directors, see “Ob utverzhdenii obshchevo polozheniya o vsesoyuznom i respublikanskom promyshlennykh obyedineniyakh” [On Ratification of the General Regulations on All-Union and Republic Industrial Associations], March 2, 1973, in Resheniya partii i pravitelstva po khozyaystvennym voprosam [Decisions of the Party and Government on Economic Questions] Vol. IX (Moscow: Politizdat, 1974), 427–59. The relevant articles are Nos. 24–27. On the “reklama” rights of Military Council members, see “O voyennykh sovetakh sovetskoy armii i voyenno-morskogo flota,” [On Military Councils of the Soviet Army and Fleet], April 17, 1958, in KPSS o vooruzhennykh silakh sovetskogo soyuza. Dokumenty 1917–1968 [CPSU on the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union. Documents 1917–1968] (Moscow: Voyenizdat, 1969), 353, and Yepishev, A. A., ed., KPSS i voyennoye stroitelstvo [CPSU and Military Development] (Moscow: Voyenizdat, 1982), 154–63.Google Scholar

⁵³ Hough (fn. 2), 5.