Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T04:23:05.150Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

2,4-D Past, Present, and Future: A Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Mark A. Peterson ,
Steve A. McMaster ,
Dean E. Riechers ,
Josh Skelton  and
Phillip W. Stahlman
Mark A. Peterson*
Affiliation:
Dow AgroSciences LLC, Indianapolis, IN 46268
Steve A. McMaster
Affiliation:
Industry Task Force II on 2,4-D Research, Raleigh, NC 27615
Dean E. Riechers
Affiliation:
Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
Josh Skelton
Affiliation:
Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
Phillip W. Stahlman
Affiliation:
Kansas State University, Hays, KS 67601
*
Corresponding author's E-mail: [email protected].
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Since its discovery and initial commercialization in the 1940s, 2,4-D has been an important tool for weed control in a wide variety of crop and noncrop uses. Work studying its chemistry, physiology, mode of action, toxicology, environmental behavior, and efficacy has not only helped elucidate the characteristics of 2,4-D but also provided basic methods that have been used to investigate the properties of hundreds of herbicides that followed it. Much of the information published by researchers over 60 yr ago is still pertinent to understanding the performance of 2,4-D today. Further, new studies continue to be published, especially regarding the mechanisms of 2,4-D action at the molecular level. New uses for 2,4-D, sometimes enabled by biotechnology, continue to be developed. This review strives to provide an overall understanding of 2,4-D activity in plants, plant sensitivity to 2,4-D, toxicological impacts, and current and future uses.

Desde su descubrimiento y su comercialización inicial en los años 1940s, el 2,4-D ha sido una herramienta importante para el control de malezas en una amplia variedad de cultivos y para usos no agrícolas. Trabajos estudiando su química, fisiología, modo de acción, toxicología, comportamiento en el ambiente, y eficacia han ayudado no solamente a elucidar las características del 2,4-D, pero también han brindado métodos básicos que han sido usados para investigar las propiedades de cientos de herbicidas que lo han seguido. La mayoría de la información publicada por investigadores durante los últimos 60 años es todavía pertinente para el entendimiento del desempeño de 2,4-D, hoy en día. Además, nuevos estudios continúan siendo publicados, especialmente en relación a los mecanismos de acción del 2,4-D a nivel molecular. Nuevos usos para el 2,4-D, algunas veces producto de la biotecnología, continúan siendo desarrollados. Esta revisión busca brindar un entendimiento general de la actividad de 2,4-D en las plantas, la sensibilidad de las plantas al 2,4-D, los impactos toxicológicos, y sus usos presentes y futuros.

Type
Research Article
Information
Weed Technology , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , June 2016 , pp. 303 - 345
Copyright
Copyright © Weed Science Society of America 

Footnotes

Associate Editor for this paper: Jason Bond, Mississippi State University.

References

Literature Cited

Adele, P, Reichhart, D, Salaün, J-P, Benveniste, I, Durst, F (1981) Induction of cytochrome P-450 and monooxygenase activity by 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in higher plant tissue. Plant Sci Lett 22:39–46 Google Scholar
Agbakoba, CS, Goodin, JR (1969) Effect of stage of growth of field bindweed on absorption and translocation of 14C-labeled 2,4-D and picloram. Weed Sci 17:436–438 Google Scholar
Aldrich, RJ, Willard, C (1952) Factors affecting the pre-emergence use of 2,4-D in corn. Weeds 1:338–345 Google Scholar
Al-Khatib, K, Parker, R, Fuerst, EP (1992a) Foliar absorption and translocation of herbicides from aqueous solution and treated soil. Weed Sci 40:281–287 Google Scholar
Al-Khatib, K, Parker, R, Fuerst, EP (1992b) Rose (Rosa dilecta) response to simulated herbicide drift. HortTechnology 2:394–398 Google Scholar
Al-Khatib, K, Parker, R, Fuerst, EP (1992c) Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) response to simulated drift from selected herbicides. Weed Technol 6:975–979 Google Scholar
Andersen, SM, Clay, S, Wrage, L, Matthees, D (2004) Soybean foliage residues of dicamba and 2,4-D and correlation to application rates and yield. Agron J 96:750–760 Google Scholar
Andrilenas, PA (1974) Farmers' Use of Pesticides in 1971—Quantities. Agricultural Economics Report No. 252. USDAERS Google Scholar
Anonymous (1948) Comparison of metallic salts, amine salts, and esters of 2,4-D. Report of the Policy Committee on Herbicides NCWCC, North Central Weed Control Conference. Pages 6 pGoogle Scholar
Anonymous (1953) Weed control in field crops. Recommendations of the Research Committee of the NCWCC. Page 22 in 1953 North Central Weed Control Conference Research Report Google Scholar
Anonymous (2005) 2,4-D Master Label. http://24d.org/masterlabel/default.aspx. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
Anonymous (2007) 2,4-D. in Senseman, SA, ed. Herbicide Handbook. 9th edn. Lawrence, KS: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Anonymous (2009) Poast Plus herbicide product label. EPA Reg. No. 7969-88. BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC.Google Scholar
Anonymous (2012) Tralkoxydim Herbicide product label. Registration No. 30176. Inc. NA. Calgary, Alberta: Nufarm Agriculture Inc. Google Scholar
Anonymous (2014a) Enlist Duo herbicide product label. Specimen label no. D02-407-001. Indianapolis, IN: Dow AgroSciences Google Scholar
Anonymous (2014b) Grape—Agricultural Pest Management. Herbicide Treatment Table. University of California. http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r302700311.html. Accessed July, 2015Google Scholar
Anonymous (2015a) Enlist Weed Control System Technical Bulletin. Indianapolis, IN: Dow AgroSciences. 13 pGoogle Scholar
Anonymous (2015b) State of Washington, Dept. of Ecology: Aquatic Plant Management—Aquatic Herbicides. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/management/aqua028.html. Accessed July, 2015Google Scholar
Appleby, A (1998) The practical implications of hormetic effects of herbicides on plants. Hum Exp Toxicol 17:270–271 Google Scholar
Audus, LJ (1950) Biological detoxication of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in soils: isolation of an effective organism. Nature 166:356 Google Scholar
Aylward, LL, Morgan, MK, Arbuckle, TE, Barr, DB, Burns, CJ, Alexander, BH, Hays, SM (2010) Biomonitoring data for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the United States and Canada: interpretation in a public health risk assessment context using biomonitoring equivalents. Environ Health Perspect 118:177–181 Google Scholar
Baker, E, Bukovac, M (1971) Characterization of the components of plant cuticles in relation to the penetration of 2,4-D. Ann Appl Biol 67:243–253 Google Scholar
Baker, E, Hunt, GM (1981) Developmental changes in leaf epicuticular waxes in relation to foliar penetration. New Phytol 88:731–747 Google Scholar
Banks, PA, Schroeder, J (2002) Carrier volume affects herbicide activity in simulated spray drift studies. Weed Technol 16:833–837 Google Scholar
Barrett, M (1997) Regulation of xenobiotic degrading enzymes with insecticides and other synergists. Pages 289–304 in Hatzios, KK, ed. Regulation of Enzymatic Systems Detoxifying Xenobiotics in Plants. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Google Scholar
Basler, E, Todd, GW, Meyer, RE (1961) Effects of moisture stress on absorption, translocation, and distribution of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in bean plants. Plant Physiol 36:573 Google Scholar
Bayley, C, Trolinder, N, Ray, C, Morgan, M, Quisenberry, JE, Ow, DW (1992) Engineering 2,4-D resistance into cotton. Theor Appl Genet 83:645–649 Google Scholar
Beckie, HJ, Reboud, X (2009) Selecting for weed resistance: herbicide rotation and mixture. Weed Technol 23:363–370 Google Scholar
Behrens, R, Lueschen, W (1979) Dicamba volatility. Weed Sci 27:486–493 Google Scholar
Benbrook, CM (2012) Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the US—the first sixteen years. Environ Sci Eur 24:2190–4715 Google Scholar
Bennet, R (1989) The effects of 2,4-D iso-octyl ester/ioxynil herbicide in the liquid and vapour phases on the growth of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) plants. S Afr J Plant Soil 6:24–31 Google Scholar
Bernards, ML, Crespo, RJ, Kruger, GR, Gaussoin, R, Tranel, PJ (2012) A waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) population resistant to 2,4-D. Weed Sci 60:379–384 Google Scholar
Bhatti, MA, AlKhatib, K, Parker, R (1996) Wine grape (Vitis vinifera) response to repeated exposure of selected sulfonylurea herbicides and 2,4-D. Weed Technol 10:951–956 Google Scholar
Biediger, DL, Baumann, PA, Weaver, DN, Chandler, JM, Merkle, MG (1992) Interactions between primisulfuron and selected soil-applied insecticides in corn (Zea mays). Weed Technol 6:807–812 Google Scholar
Bode, LE (1988) Spray Application Technology—WSSA Monograph 4. Champaign, IL: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Borges, S, Dzubow, C, Orrick, G, Stavola, A (2004) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxacetic acid analysis of risks to endangered and threatened salmon and steelhead. USEPA Environmental Field Branch Office of Pesticide Programs, USA.Google Scholar
Bramble, WC, Burns, WR (1974) A long-term ecological study of game food and cover on a sprayed utility right-of-way. University P No. 918. Pages 16 pGoogle Scholar
Breeze, VG (1993) Phytotoxicity of herbicide vapor. Pages 29–54 in Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. New York, NY: Springer Google Scholar
Breeze, VG, West, CJ (1987) Long-term and short-term effects of vapor of the herbicide 2,4-D butyl on the growth of tomato plants. Weed Res 27:13–21 Google Scholar
Bridges, DC (1992) Crop Losses Due to Weeds in the United States, 1992. Champaign, IL: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Brookes, G, Carpenter, J, McHughen, A (2012) A review and assessment of ‘Impact of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the US—the first sixteen years: Benbrook C (2012)'. Environmental Sciences Europe Vol 24: 24 (September 2012). Dorchester, UK: PG Economics. 14 pGoogle Scholar
Brown, DW, Al-Khatib, K, Regehr, DL, Stahlman, PW, Loughin, TM (2004) Safening grain sorghum injury from metsulfuron with growth regulator herbicides. Weed Sci 52:319–325 Google Scholar
Burgoyne, TW, Hites, RA (1993) Effect of temperature and wind direction on the atmospheric concentrations of alpha-endosulfan. Environ Sci Technol 27:910–914 Google Scholar
Burns, CJ, Swaen, GM (2012) Review of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) biomonitoring and epidemiology. Crit Rev Toxicol 42:768–786 Google Scholar
Burns, ER, Buchanan, GA, Hiltbold, A (1969) Absorption and translocation of 2,4-D by wolftail (Carex cherokeensis Schwein). Weed Sci 17:401–404 Google Scholar
Burnside, O, Wicks, G (1972) Competitiveness and herbicide tolerance of sorghum hybrids. Weed Sci 20:314–316 Google Scholar
Burnside, OC, Bovey, RW, Elmore, CL, Johnson, RA, Knake, EL, Lembi, CA, Nalewaja, JD, Newton, M, Szmedra, P, Watterberg, EV (1996) Biologic and economic assessment of benefits from use of phenoxy herbicides in the United States. Special NAPIAP report no. 1-PA-96 Google Scholar
Bus, JS, Leber, AP (2001) Miscellaneous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Patty's Toxicology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Google Scholar
Bussan, A, Colquhoun, JB, Cullen, E, Davis, VM, Gevens, A, Groves, R, Heider, D, Nice, G, Ruark, M (2014) Commercial Vegetable Production in Wisconsin. UW-Extension Bulletin A3422. University of Wisconsin-Extension Google Scholar
Cantor, KP, Blair, A, Everett, G, Gibson, R, Burmeister, LF, Brown, LM, Schuman, L, Dick, FR (1992) Pesticides and other agricultural risk factors for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res 52:2447–2455 Google Scholar
Carlsen, S, Spliid, NH, Svensmark, B (2006) Drift of 10 herbicides after tractor spray application. 2. Primary drift (droplet drift). Chemosphere 64:778–786 Google Scholar
[CAST] Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (1975) The phenoxy herbicides. Weed Sci 23:253–263 Google Scholar
[CAST] Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (2014) Benefits of Controlling Nuisance Aquatic Plants and Algae in the United States. CAST Commentary QTA2012-1. Ames, IA: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology.Google Scholar
[CDMS] Crop Data Management Systems (2015) Label Database. Crop Data Management Systems, Inc. http://www.cdms.net/Label-Database. Accessed July, 2015Google Scholar
Cedergreen, N (2008) Herbicides can stimulate plant growth. Weed Res 48:429–438 Google Scholar
Charles, GW, Constable, GA, Llewellyn, DJ, Hickman, MA (2007) Tolerance of cotton expressing a 2,4-D detoxification gene to 2,4-D applied in the field. Aust J Agric Res 58:780–787 Google Scholar
Charles, JM, Bond, DM, Jeffries, TK, Yano, BL, Stott, WT, Johnson, KA, Cunny, HC, Wilson, RD, Bus, JS (1996a) Chronic dietary toxicity/oncogenicity studies on 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in rodents. Toxicol Sci 33:166–172 Google Scholar
Charles, JM, Cunny, HC, Wilson, RD, Bus, JS (1996b) Comparative subchronic studies on 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, amine, and ester in rats. Toxicol Sci 33:161–165 Google Scholar
Charles, JM, Hanley, TR, Wilson, RD, Van Ravenzwaay, B, Bus, JS (2001) Developmental toxicity studies in rats and rabbits on 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its forms. Toxicol Sci 60:121–131 Google Scholar
Chen, X, Naramoto, S, Robert, S, Tejos, R, Löfke, C, Lin, D, Yang, Z, Friml, J (2012) ABP1 and ROP6 GTPase signaling regulate clathrin-mediated endocytosis in Arabidopsis roots. Curr Biol 22:1326–1332 Google Scholar
Coady, K, Marino, T, Thomas, J, Sosinski, L, Neal, B, Hammond, L (2013) An evaluation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the amphibian metamorphosis assay and the fish short-term reproduction assay. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 90:143–150 Google Scholar
Coady, KK, Lynn Kan, H, Schisler, MR, Bhaskar Gollapudi, B, Neal, B, Williams, A, LeBaron, MJ (2014) Evaluation of potential endocrine activity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid using in vitro assays. Toxicol In Vitro 28:1018–1025 Google Scholar
Cobb, AH, Reade, JP (2010a) Auxin-type herbicides. Pages 133–156 in Herbicides and Plant Physiology. 2nd edn. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Google Scholar
Cobb, AH, Reade, JPH (2010b) Herbicide uptake and movement. Pages 50–69 in Herbicides and Plant Physiology. 2nd edn. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Google Scholar
Coble, HD, Slife, FW (1971) Root disfunction in honeyvine milkweed caused by 2,4-D. Weed Sci 19:1–3 Google Scholar
Coble, HD, Slife, FW, Butler, HS (1970) Absorption, metabolism, and translocation of 2,4-D by honeyvine milkweed. Weed Sci 18:653–656 Google Scholar
Conley, SP, Bradley, KW (2005) Wheat (Triticum aestivum) yield response to henbit (Lamium amplexicaule) interference and simulated winterkill. Weed Technol 19:902–906 Google Scholar
Cota, JA (2004) USDA Forest Service, National Report of Pesticide Use on National Forest System Lands. Online at http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/reports.shtml. Accessed July 15, 2015Google Scholar
Coupland, D (1994) Resistance to the auxin analog herbicides. Pages 171–214 in Herbicide Resistance in Plants: Biology and Biochemistry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Google Scholar
Coupland, D, Jackson, M (1991) Effects of mecoprop (an auxin analogue) on ethylene evolution and epinasty in two biotypes of Stellaria media . Ann Bot 68:167–172 Google Scholar
Coupland, D, Lutman, PJ, Heath, C (1990) Uptake, translocation, and metabolism of mecoprop in a sensitive and a resistant biotype of Stellaria media . Pestic Biochem Physiol 36:61–67 Google Scholar
Craigmyle, BD, Ellis, JM, Bradley, KW (2013) Influence of herbicide programs on weed management in soybean with resistance to glufosinate and 2,4-D. Weed Technol 27:78–84 Google Scholar
Currier, H, Dybing, C (1959) Foliar penetration of herbicides: review and present status. Weeds 7:195–213 Google Scholar
Davidonis, GH, Hamilton, RH, Mumma, RO (1980) Metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in soybean root callus—evidence for the conversion of 2,4-D amino-acid conjugates to free 2,4-D. Plant Physiol 66:537–540 Google Scholar
Delbarre, A, Muller, P, Imhoff, V, Guern, J (1996) Comparison of mechanisms controlling uptake and accumulation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, naphthalene-1-acetic acid, and indole-3-acetic acid in suspension-cultured tobacco cells. Planta 198:532–541 Google Scholar
Delvo, H, Lin, B (1994) Pesticides. Pages 86–106 in Anderson, M, ed. Agricultural Handbook no. AH-705, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Google Scholar
De Roos, A, Zahm, S, Cantor, K, Weisenburger, D, Holmes, F, Burmeister, L, Blair, A (2003) Integrative assessment of multiple pesticides as risk factors for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among men. Occup Environ Med 60:e11 Google Scholar
Derscheid, LA, Stahler, LM, Kratochvil, DE (1951) Differential responses of barley varieties to 2,4-dichlorophenoxacetic acid (2,4-D). Agron J 44:182–188 Google Scholar
de Ruiter, H, Straatman, K, Meinen, E (1993) The influence of a fatty amine surfactant on foliar absorption and translocation of the trolamine salt and iso-octyl ester of 2,4-D. Pestic Sci 38:145–154 Google Scholar
Devine, MD, Hall, LM (1990) Implications of sucrose transport mechanisms for the translocation of herbicides. Weed Sci: 299–304 Google Scholar
Devine, T, Seaney, R, Linscott, D, Hagin, R, Brace, N (1975) Results of breeding for tolerance to 2,4-D in birdsfoot trefoil. Crop Sci 15:721–724 Google Scholar
Dharmasiri, N, Dharmasiri, S, Estelle, M (2005) The F-box protein TIR1 is an auxin receptor. Nature 435:441–445 Google Scholar
Diggle, AJ, Neve, PB, Smith, FP (2003) Herbicides used in combination can reduce the probability of herbicide resistance in finite weed populations. Weed Res 43:371–382 Google Scholar
Duncan, C, Clark, J (2005) Invasive Plants of Range and Wildlands and their Environmental, Economical and Societal Impacts. Lawrence, KS: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Egan, JF, Barlow, KM, Mortensen, DA (2014) A meta-analysis on the effects of 2,4-D and dicamba drift on soybean and cotton. Weed Sci 62:193–206 Google Scholar
Ellis, JM, Ruen, DC, Moechnig, MM, Scherder, EF, Rosenbaum, K, Campbell, LA, Haile, F, Granke, LL (2014) Enlist E3 Soybean Weed Control Systems in Midwest North Central Weed Science Society Proceedings. Las Cruces, NM: North Central Weed Science Society[Abstract]Google Scholar
Elmore C (1996a) Use of 2,4-D in orchards, vineyards, and soft fruit in the United States. in Biologic and Economic Assessment of Benefits from Use of Phenoxy Herbicides in the United States. USDA/National Pesticide Impact Assessment Program Report No. 1-PA-96 Google Scholar
Elmore CL (1996b) Use of phenoxy herbicides in turfgrass in the United States. in Biologic and Economic Assessment of Benefits from Use of Phenoxy Herbicides in the United States. USDA/National Pesticide Impact Assessment Program Report No. 1-PA-96 Google Scholar
Enders, TA, Oh, S, Yang, Z, Montgomery, BL, Strader, LC (2015) Genome sequencing of Arabidopsis abp1-5 reveals second-site mutations that may affect phenotypes. Plant Cell 27:1820–1826 Google Scholar
Enders, TA, Strader, LC (2015) Auxin activity: past, present, and future. Am J Bot 102:180–196 Google Scholar
European Commission (2001) Review report for the active substance 2,4-D. 7599/VI/97-final. In Directorate E—Food Safety: Plant Health, Animal Health and Welfare, International Questions. Berlaymont, Brussels: European Commission Google Scholar
Everitt, JD, Keeling, JW (2009) Cotton growth and yield response to simulated 2,4-D and dicamba drift. Weed Technol 23:503–506 Google Scholar
Eytcheson, AN, Reynolds, D, Irby, J, Steckel, L, Walton, L, Haygood, R, Ellis, D, Richburg, J (2012) Volatility of GF-2726 as Compared with Other Auxin Herbicides. Orlando, FL Beltwide Cotton Conference Google Scholar
Fagliari, JR, Oliveira, RS Jr., Constantin, J (2005) Impact of sublethal doses of 2,4–D, simulating drift, on tomato yield. J Environ Sci Health Part B 40:201–206 Google Scholar
Farwell, S, Robinson, E, Powell, W, Adams, D (1976) Survey of airborne 2,4-D in south-central Washington. J Air Pollut Control Assoc 26:224–230 Google Scholar
Fernandez-Cornejo, J, Osteen, C, Nehring, R, Wechsler, SJ (2014) Pesticide Use Peaked in 1981, Then Trended Downward, Driven by Technological Innovations and Other Factors. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Google Scholar
Feung, C, Loerch, S, Hamilton, RH, Mumma, RO (1978) Comparative metabolic fate of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in plants and plant tissue culture. J Agric Food Chem 26:1064–1067 Google Scholar
Feung, C-S, Hamilton, RH, Mumma, RO (1973) Metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. V. Identification of metabolites in soybean callus tissue cultures. J Agric Food Chem 21:637–640 Google Scholar
Feung, C-S, Hamilton, RH, Mumma, RO (1975) Metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. VII. Comparison of metabolites from five species of plant callus tissue cultures. J Agric Food Chem 23:373–376 Google Scholar
Feung, C-S, Mumma, RO, Hamilton, RH (1974) Metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. VI. Biological properties of amino acid conjugates. J Agric Food Chem 22:307–309 Google Scholar
Fites, R, Slife, F, Hanson, J (1964) Translocation and metabolism of radioactive 2,4-D in jimsonweed. Weeds 12:180–183 Google Scholar
Fletcher, RA, Drexler, DM (1980) Interactions of diclofop-methy and 2,4-D in cultivated oats (Avena sativa). Weed Sci 28:363–366 Google Scholar
Flint, JL, Barrett, M (1989a) Antagonism of glyphosate toxicity to johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) by 2,4-D and dicamba. Weed Sci 37:700–705 Google Scholar
Flint, JL, Barrett, M (1989b) Effects of glyphosate combinations with 2,4-D or dicamba on field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis). Weed Sci 37:12–18 Google Scholar
Forthoffer, N, Helvig, C, Dillon, N, Benveniste, I, Zimmerlin, A, Tardif, F, Salaün, J-P (2001) Induction and inactivation of a cytochrome P450 conferring herbicide resistance in wheat seedlings. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 26:9–16 Google Scholar
Franke, W (1967) Mechanisms of foliar penetration of solutions. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 18:281–300 Google Scholar
Freyman, S, Hamman, WM (1979) Effect of phenoxy herbicides on cold hardiness of winter wheat. Can J Plant Sci 59:237–240 Google Scholar
Friesen, HA, Walker, HR (1956) A comparison of MCP and 2,4-D for the control of annual weeds in grain crops. Can J Plant Sci 37:69–81 Google Scholar
Fults, JL, Payne, MG (1955) The effect of 2,4-D and maleic hydrazide on sprouting, yields and color in Red McClure potatoes. Am J Potato Res 32:451–459 Google Scholar
Gao, Y, Zhang, Y, Zhang, D, Dai, X, Estelle, M, Zhao, Y (2015) Auxin binding protein 1 (ABP1) is not required for either auxin signaling or Arabidopsis development. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 112:2275–2280 Google Scholar
Garabrant, DH, Philbert, MA (2002) Review of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) epidemiology and toxicology. CRC Crit Toxicol 32:233–257 Google Scholar
Gershater, M, Sharples, K, Edwards, R (2006) Carboxylesterase activities toward pesticide esters in crops and weeds. Phytochemistry 67:2561–2567 Google Scholar
Gershater, MC, Cummins, I, Edwards, R (2007) Role of a carboxylesterase in herbicide bioactivation in Arabidopsis thaliana . J Biol Chem 282:21460–21466 Google Scholar
Gershater, MC, Edwards, R (2007) Regulating biological activity in plants with carboxylesterases. Plant Sci 173:579–588 Google Scholar
Gertsch, ME (1953) The influence of various carriers upon the inhibitory effectiveness of 2,4-D sprays. Weeds 2:33–42 Google Scholar
Gervais, JA, Luukinen, B, Buhl, K, Stone, D (2008) 2,4-D Technical Fact Sheet; National Pesticide Information Center, Oregon State University Extension Services. http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/2,4-DTech.pdf. Accessed June 1, 2015Google Scholar
Gile, JD (1983) Relative airborne losses of commercial 2,4-D formulations from a simulated wheat field. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 12:465–469 Google Scholar
Gillespie, GR, Nalewaja, JD (1989) Influence of 2,4-D and MCPA formulations and oil on diclofop phytotoxicity. Weed Sci 37:380–384 Google Scholar
Gilreath, JP, Chase, CA, Locascio, SJ (2001) Crop injury from sublethal rates of herbicide. III. Pepper. HortScience 36:677–681 Google Scholar
Gingell, R, O'Donoghue, J, Staab, RJ, Daly, IW, Bernard, BK, Ranpuria, A, Wilkinson, EJ, Woltering, D, Johns, PA, Montgomery, SB (2001) Phenol and phenolics. Patty's Toxicology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Google Scholar
Gleason, C, Foley, RC, Singh, KB (2011) Mutant analysis in Arabidopsis provides insight into the molecular mode of action of the auxinic herbicide dicamba. PloS ONE 6:e17245 Google Scholar
Goggin, DE, Powles, SB (2014) Detoxification of 2,4-D in resistant wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) (161) in Proceedings of the Weed Science Society of America Meetings. Lawrence, KS: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Gollapudi, BB, Charles, JM, Linscombe, V, Day, SJ, Bus, JS (1999) Evaluation of the genotoxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its derivatives in mammalian cell cultures. Mutat Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 444:217–225 Google Scholar
Goodman, JE, Loftus, CT, Zu, K (2015) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, gastric cancer, and prostate cancer: meta-analyses of the published literature. Ann Epidemiol 25:626–636 Google Scholar
Greenham, C (1968) Studies on herbicide contents in roots of skeleton weed (Chondrilla juncea L.) following leaf applications. Weed Res 8: 272–282 Google Scholar
Grones, P, Chen, X, Simon, S, Kaufmann, WA, De Rycke, R, Nodzyński, T, Zažímalová, E, Friml, J (2015) Auxin-binding pocket of ABP1 is crucial for its gain-of-function cellular and developmental roles. J Exp Bot 66:5055–5065 Google Scholar
Grones, P, Friml, J (2015) Auxin transporters and binding proteins at a glance. J Cell Sci 128:1–7 Google Scholar
Grossmann, K (2010) Auxin herbicides: current status of mechanism and mode of action. Pest Manag Sci 66:113–120 Google Scholar
Grossmann, K, Caspar, G, Kwiatkowski, J, Bowe, SJ (2002) On the mechanism of selectivity of the corn herbicide BAS 662H: a combination of the novel auxin transport inhibitor diflufenzopyr and the auxin herbicide dicamba. Pest Manag Sci 58:1002–1014 Google Scholar
Guilfoyle, T (2007) Plant biology: sticking with auxin. Nature 446:621–622 Google Scholar
Gunsolus, JL, Curran, WS (1991) Herbicide Mode of Action and Injury Symptoms, North Central Regional Extension Publication 377. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperative Extension Services Google Scholar
Hager, AG (2012) Growth regulator herbicides for burndown applications. http://web.extension.illinois.edu/state/newsdetail.cfm?NewsID=27112. Accessed June 15, 2015Google Scholar
Hall, C, Edgington, LV, Switzer, CM (1982) Translocation of different 2,4-D, bentazon, diclofop, or diclofop-methyl combinations in oat (Avena sativa) and soybean (Glycine max). Weed Sci 30:676–682 Google Scholar
Hall, JC, Swanton, CJ (1988) Selectivity of 2,4-D in Solanum ptycanthum Dun. and Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Weed Res 28:117–126 Google Scholar
Haller, WT (2014) Chemical control of aquatic weeds. Pages 71–88 in Gettys, LA, Haller, WT, Petty, DG, eds. Biology and Control of Aquatic Plants: A Best Management Practices Handbook. 3rd edn. Marietta, GA: Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Foundation Google Scholar
Hamilton, RH, Hurter, J, Hall, JK, Ercegovich, CD (1971) Metabolism of phenoxyacetic acids; metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid by bean plants. J Agric Food Chem 19:480–483 Google Scholar
Han, H, Yu, Q, Cawthray, GR, Powles, SB (2013) Enhanced herbicide metabolism induced by 2,4-D in herbicide susceptible Lolium rigidum provides protection against diclofop-methyl. Pest Manag Sci 69:996–1000 Google Scholar
Hatterman-Valenti, H, Christians, N, Owen, MD (1995) Effect of 2,4-D and triclopyr on annual bedding plants. J Environ Hort 13:122–122 Google Scholar
Hatterman-Valenti, H, Mayland, P (2005) Annual flower injury from sublethal rates of dicamba, 2,4-D, and premixed 2,4-D + mecoprop + dicamba. HortScience 40:680–684 Google Scholar
Hatzios, K, Hock, B, Elstner, E (2005) Metabolism and elimination of toxicants. Pages 469–518 in Plant Toxicology. 4th edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Google Scholar
Hauser, EW (1955) Absorption of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid by soybean and corn plants. Agron J 47:32–36 Google Scholar
Haydu, JJ, Hodges, AW, Hall, CR (2009) Economic impacts of the turfgrass and lawncare industry in the United States. Document FE632. Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida Google Scholar
Hayes, HM, Tarone, RE, Cantor, KP, Jessen, CR, McCurnin, DM, Richardson, RC (1991) Case-control study of canine malignant lymphoma: positive association with dog owner's use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicides. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:1226–1231 Google Scholar
Hays, SM, Aylward, LL, Driver, J, Ross, J, Kirman, C (2012) 2,4-D Exposure and risk assessment: comparison of external dose and biomonitoring-based approaches. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 64:481–489 Google Scholar
Health Canada Pest Management Regulatory Agency (2005) Re-evaluation of the Lawn and Turf Uses of (2,4-Dichlorophenoxy)acetic Acid [2,4-D]. Ottawa, ON: Pest Management Regulatory Agency Google Scholar
Health Canada Pest Management Regulatory Agency (2007) Re-evaluations of the Agricultural, Forestry, Aquatic and Industrial Site Uses of (2,4-Dichlorophenoxy)acetic Acid [2,4-D]. Ottawa, ON: Pest Management Regulatory Agency Google Scholar
Health Canada Pest Management Regulatory Agency (2008) Re-evaluation decision (2,4-Dichlorphenoxy)acetic Acid [2,4-D]. RVD2008-11. Ottawa, ON: Pest Management Regulatory Agency Google Scholar
Heap, I (2015) The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. http://www.weedscience.org. Accessed July 1, 2015Google Scholar
Helvig, C, Tardif, FJ, Seyer, A, Powles, SB, Mioskowski, C, Durst, F, Salaün, J-P (1996) Selective inhibition of a cytochrome P450 enzyme in wheat that oxidizes both the natural substrate lauric acid and the synthetic herbicide diclofop. Pestic Biochem Physiol 54:161–171 Google Scholar
Hemphill, DD, Montgomery, ML (1981) Response of vegetable crops to sublethal application of 2,4-D. Weed Sci 29:632–635 Google Scholar
Hill, BD, Todd, BG, Stobbe, EH (1980) Effect of 2,4-D on the hydrolysis of diclofop-methyl in wild oat (Avena fatua). Weed Sci 28:725–729 Google Scholar
Hillger, D, Qin, K, Simpson, D, Havens, P (2012) Reduction in drift and volatility of EnlistTM Duo with Colex-D. Page 31 in North Central Weed Science Society Proceedings, Vol. 67. Las Cruces, NM: North Central Weed Science Society Google Scholar
Hirose, S, Kawahigashi, H, Tagiri, A, Imaishi, H, Ohkawa, H, Ohkawa, Y (2007) Tissue-specific expression of rice CYP72A21 induced by auxins and herbicides. Plant Biotechnol Rep 1:27–36 Google Scholar
Hoar, SK, Blair, A, Holmes, FF, Boysen, CD, Robel, RJ, Hoover, R, Fraumeni, JF Jr. (1986) Agricultural herbicide use and risk of lymphoma and soft-tissue sarcoma. JAMA 256:1141–1147 Google Scholar
Holloway, PJ, Edgerton, BM (1992) Effects of formulation with different adjuvants on foliar uptake of difenzoquat and 2,4-D—model experiments with wild oat and field bean. Weed Res 32:183–195 Google Scholar
Industry Task Force II on 2-DRD (2009a) 2,4-D: Tested & Proven. http://24d.org/presentations/slideshows/testedProven/default.aspx#q0. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
Industry Task Force II on 2-DRD (2009b) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) Herbicide Active Ingredient Quick Reference Guide. http://www.24d.org/scientific/quick2009.pdf. Accessed July 1, 2015Google Scholar
Jacobson, A, Shimabukuro, RH, McMichael, C (1985) Response of wheat and oat seedlings to root-applied diclofop-methyl and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Pestic Biochem Physiol 24:61–67 Google Scholar
Johanson, N, Muzik, T (1961) Some effects of 2,4-D on wheat yield and root growth. Bot Gaz 122:188–194 Google Scholar
Johnson, VA, Fisher, LR, Jordan, DL, Edmisten, KE, Stewart, AM, York, AC (2012) Cotton, peanut, and soybean response to sublethal rates of dicamba, glufosinate, and 2,4-D. Weed Technol 26:195–206 Google Scholar
Jordan, T, Romanowski, R (1974) Comparison of dicamba and 2,4-D injury to field grown tomatoes. HortScience 9:74–75 Google Scholar
Jugulam, M, Dimeo, N, Veldhuis, LJ, Walsh, M, Hall, JC (2013) Investigation of MCPA (4-chloro-2-ethylphenoxyacetate) resistance in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.). J Agric Food Chem 61:12516–12521 Google Scholar
Jugulam, M, Godar, AS (2014) Cross-resistance of broadleaf weeds to 2,4-D and dicamba (107). in Proceedings of the Weed Science Society of America Meetings. Lawrence, KS: Weed Science Society of America. http://wssaabstracts.com/public/22/proceedings.html. Accessed July 1, 2015Google Scholar
Jugulam, M, Walsh, M, Hall, JC (2014) Introgression of phenoxy herbicide resistance from Raphanus raphanistrum into Raphanus sativus . Plant Breed 133:489–492 Google Scholar
Jurado, S, Abraham, Z, Manzano, C, López-Torrejón, G, Pacios, LF, Del Pozo, JC (2010) The Arabidopsis cell cycle F-box protein SKP2A binds to auxin. Plant Cell 22:3891–3904 Google Scholar
Kafiz, B, Caussanel, J, Scalla, R, Gaillardon, P (1989) Interaction between diclofop-methyl and 2,4-D in wild oat (Avena fatua L.) and cultivated oat (Avena sativa L.), and fate of diclofop-methyl in cultivated oat. Weed Res 29:299–305 Google Scholar
Kaneene, J, Miller, R (1999) Re-analysis of 2,4-D use and the occurrence of canine malignant lymphoma. Vet Hum Toxicol 41:164–170 Google Scholar
Kaufman, PB (1953) Gross morphological responses of the rice plant to 2,4-D. Weeds 2:223–253 Google Scholar
Kelley, KB, Riechers, DE (2007) Recent developments in auxin biology and new opportunities for auxinic herbicide research. Pestic Biochem Physiol 89:1–11 Google Scholar
Kelley, KB, Wax, LM, Hager, AG, Riechers, DE (2005) Soybean response to plant growth regulator herbicides is affected by other postemergence herbicides. Weed Sci 53:101–112 Google Scholar
Kennepohl, E, Munro, I, Robert, I, William, C (2001) Phenoxy herbicides (2,4-D). Pages 1623–1638 in Krieger, RI, Krieger, WC, eds. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology. Volume 2. San Diego, CA: Academic Press Google Scholar
Kepinski, S, Leyser, O (2005) The Arabidopsis F-box protein TIR1 is an auxin receptor. Nature 435:446–451 Google Scholar
Kirby, C (1980) The hormone weedkillers: a short history of their discovery and development. Croyden, UK: British Crop Protection Council. p55 Google Scholar
Kirkwood, RC (1999) Recent developments in our understanding of the plant cuticle as a barrier to the foliar uptake of pesticides. Pestic Sci 55:69–77 Google Scholar
Klein, R (2013) Harvest Aids Recommended for Winter Wheat. UNL CropWatch, University of Nebraska. http://cropwatch.unl.edu/archive/-/asset_publisher/VHeSpfv0Agju/content/harvest-aids-recommended-for-winter-wheat-unl-cropwatch-june-19-2013. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
Klingman, DL (1953) Effects of varying rates of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at different stages of growth on winter wheat. Agron J 45:606–610 Google Scholar
Knoche, M (1994) Effect of droplet size and carrier volume on performance of foliage-applied herbicides. Crop Prot 13:163–178 Google Scholar
Knoche, M, Bukovac, MJ (1999) Spray application factors and plant growth regulator performance: II. Foliar uptake of gibberellic acid and 2,4-D. Pestic Sci 55:166–174 Google Scholar
Kogan, M, Bayer, D (1996) Herbicide uptake as influenced by plant water status. Pestic Biochem Physiol 56:174–182 Google Scholar
Korasick, DA, Jez, JM, Strader, LC (2015) Refining the nuclear auxin response pathway through structural biology. Curr Opin Plant Biol 27:22–28 Google Scholar
Kreuz, K, Fonné-Pfister, R (1992) Herbicide–insecticide interaction in maize: malathion inhibits cytochrome P450-dependent primisulfuron metabolism. Pestic Biochem Physiol 43:232–240 Google Scholar
Lange, A, Fischer, B, Hamilton, D, Agamalian, H (1968) Weed control in California vineyards. Calif Agric 22(10):6–7 Google Scholar
Lee, D, Hanna, W, Buntin, G, Dosier, W, Timper, P, Wilson, J (2012) Pearl Millet for Grain. Bulletin 1216. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Extension Service. 8 pGoogle Scholar
Lee, S, Sundaram, S, Armitage, L, Evans, JP, Hawkes, T, Kepinski, S, Ferro, N, Napier, RM (2014) Defining binding efficiency and specificity of auxins for SCFTIR1/AFB-Aux/IAA co-receptor complex formation. ACS Chem Biol 9:673–682 Google Scholar
Leon, RG, Ferrell, JA, Brecke, BJ (2014) Impact of exposure to 2,4-D and dicamba on peanut injury and yield. Weed Technol 28:465–470 Google Scholar
Li, M, Tank, H, Kennedy, A, Zhang, H, Downer, B, Ouse, D, Liu, L (2013). Enlist Duo herbicide: a novel 2,4-D plus glyphosate premix formulation with low potential for off-target movement. in Pesticide Formulation and Delivery Systems. Volume 32. Innovating Legacy Products for New Uses. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International Google Scholar
Li, M, Tank, H, Liu, L, Qin, K, Wilson, SL, Ouse, DG (2010) High-strength, herbicidal compositions of glyphosate and 2,4-D salts. U.S. patent application 12/763,566 Google Scholar
Lin, B, Padgitt, M, Bull, L, Delvo, H, Shank, D (1995) Pesticide and Fertilizer Use and Trends in U.S. Agriculture. Agricultural Economics Research Report 717. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Google Scholar
Linn, MB, Slife, FW, Butler, HJ (1959) Prevent 2,4-D injury to crops and ornamental plants. Circular 808. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, College of Agriculture, Extension Service in Agriculture and Home Economics Google Scholar
Liu, Z (2004) Effects of surfactants on foliar uptake of herbicides—a complex scenario. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 35:149–153 Google Scholar
Loomis, D, Guyton, K, Grosse, Y, El Ghissasi, F, Bouvard, V, Benbrahim-Tallaa, L, Guha, N, Mattock, H, Straif, K (2015) Carcinogenicity of lindane, DDT, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Lancet Oncol 16:891–892 Google Scholar
Loos, M (1969) Degradation of herbicides. Pages 18–25 in Herbicides. 1st edn. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Google Scholar
Loubser, J, Cairns, A (1989) Abnormalities of the growth point and ear of barley caused by 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. S Afr J Plant Soil 6:103–107 Google Scholar
Loux, M (2010) Resist the temptation to apply 2,4-D to emerged wheat in fall. C.O.R.N. Newsletter. Columbus: The Ohio State University Google Scholar
Loux, M, Doohan, D, Dobbels, A, Johnson, WG, Young, BG, Legleiter, TR, Hager, AG (2015) Weed Control Guide for Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. Pub# WS16/Bulletin 789/IL15. The Ohio State University, Purdue University, and the University of Illinois. 212 pGoogle Scholar
Lutman, P, Heath, C (1990) Variations in the resistance of Stellaria media to mecoprop due to biotype, application method, and 1-aminobenzotriazole. Weed Res 30:129–137 Google Scholar
Lyon, D, DeBoer, K, Harveson, R, Hein, G, Hergert, G, Holman, T, Nelson, L, Johnson, J, Nleya, T, Krall, J, Nielsen, D, Vigil, M (2008) Proso Millet in the Great Plains. EC137. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service. 20 pGoogle Scholar
Ma, R, Kaundun, SS, Tranel, PJ, Riggins, CW, McGinness, DL, Hager, AG, Hawkes, T, McIndoe, E, Riechers, DE (2013) Distinct detoxification mechanisms confer resistance to mesotrione and atrazine in a population of waterhemp. Plant Physiol 163:363–377 Google Scholar
Maibach, H, Feldmann, R (1974) Systemic absorption of pesticides through the skin of man. Pages 120–127 in Occupational Exposure to Pesticides. Report to the Federal Working Group on Pest Management from the Task Group on Occupational Exposure to Pesticides. Washington, DC: Federal Working Group on Pest Management Google Scholar
Manalil, S, Busi, R, Renton, M, Powles, SB (2011) Rapid evolution of herbicide resistance by low herbicide dosages. Weed Sci 59:210–217 Google Scholar
Marple, ME, Al-Khatib, K, Peterson, DE (2008) Cotton injury and yield as affected by simulated drift of 2,4-D and dicamba. Weed Technol 22:609–614 Google Scholar
Marshall, RJ, Nel, PC (1981) Effect of post-emergence applied 2,4-D and MCPA on growth and yield of grain sorghum. Pages 27–29 in Proceedings of the Fourth National Weeds Conference of South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa National Weeds Conference of South AfricaGoogle Scholar
Martin, RA, Edgington, L (1981) Comparative systemic translocation of several xenobiotics and sucrose. Pestic Biochem Physiol 16:87–96 Google Scholar
Marty, MS, Neal, BH, Zablotny, CL, Yano, BL, Andrus, AK, Woolhiser, MR, Boverhof, DR, Saghir, SA, Perala, AW, Passage, JK (2013) An F1-extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study in Crl: CD (SD) rats with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Toxicol Sci 136:527–547 Google Scholar
McCarty, LB, Murphy, TR (1994) Control of turfgrass weeds. Pages 209–248 in Turgeon, AJ, ed. Control of Turfgrass Weeds. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America Google Scholar
McSteen, P (2010) Auxin and monocot development. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Biology 2:a001479 Google Scholar
Milesi, C, Running, SW, Elvidge, CD, Dietz, JB, Tuttle, BT, Nemani, RR (2005) Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States. Environ Manag 36:426–438 Google Scholar
Miller, D, Vidrine, P, Kelly, S, Frederick, R (2003) Effects of pre-plant application of 2,4-D on cotton. LA Agric 46:35 Google Scholar
Mithila, J, Hall, J (2005) Comparison of ABP1 over-expressing Arabidopsis and under-expressing tobacco with an auxinic herbicide-resistant wild mustard (Brassica kaber) biotype. Plant Sci 169:21–28 Google Scholar
Mithila, J, Hall, JC, Johnson, WG, Kelley, KB, Riechers, DE (2011) Evolution of resistance to auxinic herbicides: historical perspectives, mechanisms of resistance, and implications for broadleaf weed management in agronomic crops. Weed Sci 59:445–457 Google Scholar
Mockaitis, K, Estelle, M (2008) Auxin receptors and plant development: a new signaling paradigm. Ann Rev Cell Dev Biol 24:55–80 Google Scholar
Moechnig, M, Deneke, D (2009) Harvest Aid Weed Control in Small Grain. South Dakota State University. http://www.sdstate.edu/sdces/store/index.cfm#taxonomy=&keywords=FS953&typeVal=63&typeOfPubValue=31&index=-1&total=-1. Accesed November 10, 2015Google Scholar
Moechnig, M, Deneke, D, Wrage, L (2011) Weed Control in Small Grain and Millet: 2011. FS525A. South Dakota Cooperative Extension Service. http://pubstorage.sdstate.edu/AgBio_Publications/articles/FS525A.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2015Google Scholar
Mohseni-Moghadam, M, Doohan, D (2015) Response of bell pepper and broccoli to simulated drift rates of 2,4-D and dicamba. Weed Technol 29:226–232 Google Scholar
Monaco, TJ, Weller, SC, Ashton, FM (2002) Weed Science: Principles and Practices. 4th edn. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 671 pGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, ML, Chang, YL, Freed, VH (1971) Comparative metabolism of 2,4-D by bean and corn plants. J Agric Food Chem 19:1219–1221 Google Scholar
Moore, JH (2008). A review of 2,4-D formulations and vapour drift. Pages 93–97 in Douglas, A, ed. 2008 Weed Updates, Western Australia. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia Google Scholar
Morrison, W, Segarra, E, Gwinn, C, Abernathy, J (1994) The biologic and economic assessment of pesticides on grain sorghum. National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Report Google Scholar
Mougin, C, Polge, N, Scalla, R, Cabanne, F (1991) Interactions of various agrochemicals with cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenases of wheat cells. Pestic Biochem Physiol 40:1–11 Google Scholar
Mueller, TC, Barrett, M, Witt, WW (1990) A basis for the antagonistic effect of 2,4-D on haloxyfop-methyl toxicity to Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense). Weed Sci 38:103–107 Google Scholar
Munoz, PR, Quesenberry, K, Blount, A, Ferrell, J, Dubeux, J Jr. (2015) A new red clover 2,4-D-resistant cultivar to improve broadleaf weed control and elucidate the molecular mechanism of resistance. Pages 31–40 in Molecular Breeding of Forage and Turf. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Google Scholar
Munro, IC, Carlo, GL, Orr, JC, Sund, KG, Wilson, RM, Kennepohl, E, Lynch, BS, Jablinske, M (1992) A comprehensive, integrated review and evaluation of the scientific evidence relating to the safety of the herbicide 2,4-D. Int J Toxicol 11:559–664 Google Scholar
Nalewaja, JD, Arnold, WE (1970). Weed control methods, losses and costs due to weeds, and benefits of weed control in wheat and other small grains. Pages 48–64 in 1st FAO International Conference on Weed Control. No. WC/70: WP/5. Davis, CA University of California Google Scholar
[NASS] National Agricultural Statistics Service (1991) Agricultural Chemical Usage 1990 Field Crops Summary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agricuture National Agricultural Statistics Service Google Scholar
[NASS] National Agricultural Statistics Service (1994) Agrichemical Survey 1993, Fruits Summary. AG Ch 1. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service Google Scholar
[NASS] National Agricultural Statistics Service (2015) NASS Quick Stats. http://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
[NASSHighlights] National Agricultural Statistics Service Highlights (2012) 2012 Agricultural Chemical Use Survey—Soybeans. No. Pages 2013–1. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Surveys/Guide_to_NASS_Surveys/Chemical_Use/2012_Soybeans_Highlights/index.asp#pesticide. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
[NASSHighlights] National Agricultural Statistics Service Highlights (2013) 2012 Agricultural Chemical Use Survey—Wheat. No. Pages 2013–1. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Surveys/Guide_to_NASS_Surveys/Chemical_Use/ChemUseHighlights-Wheat-2012.pdf. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar
Nelson, LS, Owens, CS, Getsinger, KD (2003) Response of wild rice to selected aquatic herbicides. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. ERDC/EL Technical Report 03-14. Pages 18 pGoogle Scholar
New Zealand Environmental Risk Management Authority (2003) Substances to be transferred to the HSNO Act under section 160(1)(a): phenoxy herbicides. http://www.24d.org/govtrev/New%20Zealand-phenoxy-report-2003.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2015Google Scholar
Nice, G, Johnson, WG, Baumann, T (2004) Amine or Ester, Which is Better? http://www.btny.purdue.edu/weedscience/2004/articles/amineester04.pdf. Accessed May 13, 2015Google Scholar
Norris, LA, Freed, VH (1966) Absorption and translocation characteristics of several phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides in bigleaf maple. Weed Res 6:203–211 Google Scholar
Norris, RF (1974) Penetration of 2,4-D in relation to cuticle thickness. Am J Bot 61:74–79 Google Scholar
Ogg, AG, Ahmedullah, MA, Wright, GM (1991) Influence of repeated applications of 2,4-D on yield and juice quality of concord grapes (Vitis labruscana). Weed Sci 39:284–295 Google Scholar
Olson, P, Zalik, S, Breakey, W, Brown, D (1951) Sensitivity of wheat and barley at different stages of growth to treatment with 2,4-D. Agron J 43:77–83 Google Scholar
Olson, WA, Nalewaja, JD (1981) Antagonistic effects of MCPA on wild oat (Avena fatua) control with diclofop. Weed Sci 29:566–571 Google Scholar
O'Sullivan, PA, Born, WHV, Friesen, HA (1977) Influence of herbicides for broad-leaved weeds and adjuvants with diclofop-methyl on wild oat control. Can J Plant Sci 57:117–125 Google Scholar
Pallas, J Jr., Williams, G (1962) Foliar absorption and translocation of P32 and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid as affected by soil-moisture tension. Bot Gaz 123:175–180 Google Scholar
Pallas, JE Jr. (1960) Effects of temperature and humidity on foliar absorption and translocation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and benzoic acid. Plant Physiol 35:575 Google Scholar
Pasquer, F, Ochsner, U, Zarn, J, Keller, B (2006) Common and distinct gene expression patterns induced by the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, cinidon-ethyl and tribenuron-methyl in wheat. Pest Manag Sci 62:1155–1167 Google Scholar
Peachey, E (2014) Vegetation management in orchards, vineyards, and berries. Pages L1–L23 in Peachy, E, ed. Pacific Northwest Weed Management Handbook. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension Service. http://pnwhandbooks.org/weed/. Accessed November 10, 2015Google Scholar
Peer, WA (2013) From perception to attenuation: auxin signalling and responses. Current Opin Plant Biol 16:561–568 Google Scholar
Perkins, EJ, Stiff, CM, Lurquin, PF (1987) Use of Alcaligenes eutrophus as a source of genes for 2,4-D resistance in plants. Weed Sci 35:12–18 Google Scholar
Peterson, DE (1997) Wheat Production Handbook. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University Google Scholar
Peterson, GE (1967) The discovery and development of 2,4-D. Agric Hist 41:243–254 Google Scholar
Peterson, MA, Shan, G, Walsh, TA, Wright, TR (2011) Utility of Aryloxyalkanoate Dioxygenase Transgenes for Development of New Herbicide Resistant Crop Technologies. Information Systems for Biotechnology, May. http://www.isb.vt.edu. Accessed November 10, 2015Google Scholar
Phillips, W (1958) The effect of 2,4-D on the yield of Midland grain sorghum. Weeds 6:271–280 Google Scholar
Phipps, HM (1963) The role of 2,4-D in the appearance of a leaf blight of some plains tree species. Forest Sci 9:283–288 Google Scholar
Pierre-Jerome, E, Moss, BL, Nemhauser, JL (2013) Tuning the auxin transcriptional response. J Exp Bot 64:2557–2563 Google Scholar
Pillmoor, JB, Gaunt, JK (1981) The behaviour and mode of action of the phenoxyacetic acids in plants. Pages 147–218 in Hutson, DH, Roberts, TR, eds. Progress in Pesticide Biochemistry. Volume 1. Chichester, UK: Wiley Google Scholar
Powles, SB, Yu, Q (2010) Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides. Annu Rev Plant Biol 61:317–347 Google Scholar
Preston, C (2004) Herbicide resistance in weeds endowed by enhanced detoxification: complications for management. Weed Sci 52:448–453 Google Scholar
Preston, C, Tardif, FJ, Christopher, JT, Powles, SB (1996) Multiple resistance to dissimilar herbicide chemistries in a biotype of Lolium rigidum due to enhanced activity of several herbicide degrading enzymes. Pestic Biochem Physiol 54:123–134 Google Scholar
Price, C, Klingman, G (1958) Wheat and oats varietal responses to applications of alkanolamine salt of 2,4-D. Agron J 50:200–204 Google Scholar
Prigge, MJ, Lavy, M, Ashton, NW, Estelle, M (2010) Physcomitrella patens auxin-resistant mutants affect conserved elements of an auxin-signaling pathway. Curr Biol 20:1907–1912 Google Scholar
Quehee, SS, Sutherland, RG (1973) Penetration of amine salt formulations of 2,4-D into sunflower. Weed Sci 21:115–118 Google Scholar
Quehee, SS, Sutherland, RG (1974) Volatilization of various esters and salts of 2,4-D. Weed Sci 22:313–318 Google Scholar
Reddy, SS, Stahlman, PW, Geier, PW, Bean, BW, Dozier, T (2014) Grain sorghum response and Palmer amaranth control with postemergence application of fluthiacet-methyl. Int J Pest Manag 60:147–152 Google Scholar
Riar, DS, Burke, IC, Yenish, JP, Bell, J, Gill, K (2011) Inheritance and physiological basis for 2,4-D resistance in prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola L.). J Agric Food Chem 59:9417–9423 Google Scholar
Richardson, RG (1977) Review of foliar absorption and translocation of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. Weed Res 17:259–272 Google Scholar
Riechers, DE, Kreuz, K, Zhang, Q (2010) Detoxification without intoxication: herbicide safeners activate plant defense gene expression. Plant Physiol 153:3–13 Google Scholar
Riechers, DE, Wax, LM, Liebl, RA, Bullock, DG (1995) Surfactant effects on glyphosate efficacy. Weed Technol 9:281–285 Google Scholar
Riederer, M (2005) Uptake and transport of xenobiotics. Chapter 3 in Hock, B, Elstner, E, eds. Plant Toxicology. 4th edn. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Google Scholar
Robertson, MM, Kirkwood, RC (1969) Mode of action of foliage-applied translocated herbicides with particular reference to phenoxy-acid compounds. I. Mechanism and factors influencing herbicide absorption. Weed Res 9:224–240 Google Scholar
Robertson, MM, Kirkwood, RC (1970) Mode of action of foliage-applied translocated herbicides with particular reference to phenoxy-acid compounds. II. Mechanism and factors influencing translocation, metabolism, and biochemical inhibition. Weed Res 10:94–120 Google Scholar
Robinson, AP, Davis, VM, Simpson, DM, Johnson, WG (2013) Response of soybean yield components to 2,4-D. Weed Sci 61:68–76 Google Scholar
Robinson, AP, Simpson, DM, Johnson, WG (2012) Summer annual weed control with 2,4-D and glyphosate. Weed Technol 26:657–660 Google Scholar
Robinson, AP, Simpson, DM, Johnson, WG (2015) Response of aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase-12 transformed soybean yield components to postemergence 2,4-D. Weed Sci 63:242–247 Google Scholar
Rodgers, EG (1952) Brittleness and other responses of corn to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Plant Physiol 27:153 Google Scholar
Roider, CA, Griffin, JL, Harrison, SA, Jones, CA (2008) Carrier volume affects wheat response to simulated glyphosate drift. Weed Technol 22:453–458 Google Scholar
Ruen, DC, Moechnig, MM, Scherder, EF, Rosenbaum, K, Campbell, LA, Haile, F, Granke, LL, Ellis, JM (2014) Enlist Corn Weed Control Systems in Midwest 2014 North Central Weed Science Society Conference Proceedings. Las Cruces, NM North Central Weed Science Society Google Scholar
Sabba, RP (2003) Inheritance of resistance to clopyralid and picloram in yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) is controlled by a single nuclear recessive gene. J Hered 94:523–527 Google Scholar
Saghir, SA, Marty, MS, Zablotny, CL, Passage, JK, Perala, AW, Neal, BH, Hammond, L, Bus, JS (2013) Life-stage-, sex-, and dose-dependent dietary toxicokinetics and relationship to toxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in rats: implications for toxicity test dose selection, design, and interpretation. Toxicol Sci 136:294–307 Google Scholar
Salaün, J-P, Simon, A, Durst, F (1986) Specific induction of lauric acid ω-hydroxylase by clofibrate, diethylhexyl-phthalate and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in higher plants. Lipids 21:776–779 Google Scholar
Salehin, M, Bagchi, R, Estelle, M (2015) SCFTIR1/AFB-based auxin perception: mechanism and role in plant growth and development. Plant Cell 27:9–19 Google Scholar
Samtani, JB, Masiunas, JB, Appleby, JE (2008) Injury on white oak seedlings from herbicide exposure simulating drift. HortScience 43:2076–2080 Google Scholar
Sandermann, H, Scheel, D, Trenck, Tvd (1984) Use of plant cell cultures to study the metabolism of environmental chemicals. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 8:167–182 Google Scholar
Sandmann, ER, de Beer, PR, van Dyk, LP (1991) Atmospheric pollution by auxin-type herbicides in Tala Valley, Natal. Chemosphere 22:137–145 Google Scholar
Sargent, J (1965) The penetration of growth regulators into leaves. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 16:1–12 Google Scholar
Sargent, J, Blackman, G (1972) Studies on foliar penetration IX. Patterns of penetration of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid into the leaves of different species. J Exp Bot 23:830–841 Google Scholar
Schultz, ME, Burnside, OC (1980) Absorption, translocation, and metabolism of 2,4-D and glyphosate in hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum). Weed Sci 28:13–20 Google Scholar
Sciumbato, AS, Chandler, JM, Senseman, SA, Bovey, RW, Smith, KL (2004) Determining exposure to auxin-like herbicides. I. Quantifying injury to cotton and soybean 1. Weed Technol 18:1125–1134 Google Scholar
Sciumbato, AS, Senseman, SA, Steele, GL, Chandler, JM, Cothren, JT (2014) The effect of 2,4-D drift rates on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) growth and yield. Plant Health Prog 15:7 Google Scholar
Scott, BJ, Norsworthy, J, Barber, T, Hardke, J (2013). Rice weed control. Pages 53–62 in Arkansas Rice Production Handbook. MP192 Revised. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, November 2013Google Scholar
Shaner, DL (2014) Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Champaign, IL: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Sharma, MP, Vanden Born, WH (1970) Foliar penetration of picloram and 2,4-D in aspen and balsam poplar. Weed Sci 18:57–63 Google Scholar
Shaw, WC, Willard, CJ, Bernard, RL (1955) The effect of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) on wheat, oats, and barley. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 761. Pages 24 pGoogle Scholar
Shepard, JP, Creighton, J, Duzan, H (2004) Forestry herbicides in the United States: an overview. Wildl Soc Bull 32:1020–1027 Google Scholar
Shi, J-H, Yang, Z-B (2011) Is ABP1 an auxin receptor yet? Mol Plant 4:635–640 Google Scholar
Shimabukuro, RH, Hoffer, BL (1991) Metabolism of diclofop-methyl in susceptible and resistant biotypes of Lolium rigidum . Pestic Biochem Physiol 39:251–260 Google Scholar
Shimizu-Mitao, Y, Kakimoto, T (2014) Auxin sensitivities of all Arabidopsis Aux/IAAs for degradation in the presence of every TIR1/AFB. Plant Cell Physiol 55:1450–1459 Google Scholar
Simpson, DM, Diehl, KE, Stoller, EW (1994) 2,4-D safening of nicosulfuron and terbufos interaction in corn (Zea mays). Weed Technol 8:547–552 Google Scholar
Simpson, DM, Rosenbaum, K, Ellis, JM, Richburg, JS, Haile, F, Granke, LL, Thompson, GD, Haygood, RA, Walton, LC (2014) Palmer amaranth weed control with Enlist weed control systems. Page 68 in Proceedings of the 2014 North Central Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM: North Central Weed Science Society Google Scholar
Smith, AE (1989) Degradation, fate, and persistence of phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides in soil. Rev Weed Sci 4:1–24 Google Scholar
Smith, LL, Geronimo, J (1984) Response of seven crops to foliar applications of six auxin-like herbicides. Down to Earth 40:8 Google Scholar
Smith Jr RJ (1988) Weed thresholds in southern US rice, Oryza sativa . Weed Tech 2:232–241 Google Scholar
Smith, T (2015) Weed Management in Orchards. http://county.wsu.edu/chelan-douglas/agriculture/treefruit/Pages/Orchard_Weed_Management.aspx. Accessed July 1, 2015Google Scholar
Solomon, K, Harris, S, Stephenson, G (1993) Applicator and bystander exposure to home garden and landscape pesticides. Pages 262–274 in Racke, KD, Leslie, AR, eds. Pesticides in Urban Environments, Fate and Signifigance. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, LM, Culpepper, AS, Braxton, LB, Richburg, JS (2015) Evaluating the volatility of three formulations of 2,4-D when applied in the field. Weed Technol 29:177–184 Google Scholar
Stahlman, P, Wicks, G, Smith, C, Fredricksen, R (2000) Weeds and their control in sorghum. Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Pp 535–590 Google Scholar
Staswick, PE, Serban, B, Rowe, M, Tiryaki, I, Maldonado, MT, Maldonado, MC, Suza, W (2005) Characterization of an Arabidopsis enzyme family that conjugates amino acids to indole-3-acetic acid. Plant Cell 17:616–627 Google Scholar
Steenson, T, Walker, N (1957) The pathway of breakdown of 2: 4-dichloro-and 4-chloro-2-methyl-phenoxyacetic acid by bacteria. J Gen Microbiol 16:146–155 Google Scholar
Sterling, T, Hall, J (1997) Mechanism of action of natural auxins and the auxinic herbicides. Rev Toxicol 1:111–142 Google Scholar
Stevens, P, Bukovac, M (1987) Effects of spray application parameters on foliar uptake and translocation of daminozide and 2,4-D-triethanolamine in Vicia faba . Crop Prot 6:163–170 Google Scholar
Stewart, WS, Hield, HZ (1950) Effects of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4,5-trichIorophenoxyacetic acid on fruit drop, fruit production, and leaf drop of lemon trees. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 55:163–171 Google Scholar
Streber, WR, Timmis, KN, Zenk, MH (1987) Analysis, cloning, and high-level expression of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetate monooxygenase gene tfdA of Alcaligenes eutrophus JMP134. J Bacteriol 169:2950–2955 Google Scholar
Subramanian, MV, Brunn, SA, Bernasconi, P, Patel, BC, Reagan, JD (1997) Revisiting auxin transport inhibition as a mode of action for herbicides. Weed Sci 45:621–627 Google Scholar
Swan, DG (1971) Competition of blue mustard with winter wheat. Weed Sci 19:340–342 Google Scholar
Swarup, K, Benková, E, Swarup, R, Casimiro, I, Péret, B, Yang, Y, Parry, G, Nielsen, E, De Smet, I, Vanneste, S (2008) The auxin influx carrier LAX3 promotes lateral root emergence. Nature Cell Biol 10:946–954 Google Scholar
Szabo, S, Buchholtz, K (1961) Penetration of living and non-living surfaces by 2,4-D as influenced by ionic additives. Weeds 9:177–184 Google Scholar
Tan, X, Calderon-Villalobos, LIA, Sharon, M, Zheng, C, Robinson, CV, Estelle, M, Zheng, N (2007) Mechanism of auxin perception by the TIR1 ubiquitin ligase. Nature 446:640–645 Google Scholar
Taton, M, Ullmann, P, Benveniste, P, Rahier, A (1988) Interaction of triazole fungicides and plant growth regulators with microsomal cytochrome P-450-dependent obtusifoliol 14α-methyl demethylase. Pestic Biochem Physiol 30:178–189 Google Scholar
Taylor, S, Baltensperger, D, Quesenberry, K (1989) Recurrent half-sib family selection for 2,4-D tolerance in red clover. Crop Sci 29:1109–1114 Google Scholar
Thompson, MA, Steckel, LE, Ellis, AT, Mueller, TC (2007) Soybean tolerance to early preplant applications of 2,4-D ester, 2,4-D amine, and dicamba. Weed Technol 21:882–885 Google Scholar
Thompson, WM, Nissen, SJ, Masters, RA (1996) Adjuvant effects on imazethapyr, 2,4-D and picloram absorption by leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). Weed Sci 44:469–475 Google Scholar
Timchalk, C (2004) Comparative inter-species pharmacokinetics of phenoxyacetic acid herbicides and related organic acids: evidence that the dog is not a relevant species for evaluation of human health risk. Toxicology 200:1–19 Google Scholar
Todd, BG, Stobbe, EH (1980) The basis of the antagonistic effect of 2,4-D on diclofop-methyl toxicity to wild oat (Avena fatua). Weed Sci 28:371–377 Google Scholar
Tromas, A, Paponov, I, Perrot-Rechenmann, C (2010) Auxin binding protein 1: functional and evolutionary aspects. Trends Plant Sci 15:436–446 Google Scholar
Troyer, JR (2001) In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides. Weed Sci 49:290–297 Google Scholar
Turnbull, GC, Stephenson, GR (1985) Translocation of clopyralid and 2,4-D in Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). Weed Sci 33:143–147 Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; availability of risk assessment. U.S. Federal Register Notice June 23, 2004, vol. 69, pp. 35019–35021. http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D=EPA-HQ-OPP-2004-0167. Accessed January 3, 2015Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005a) 2,4-D RED Facts. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/REDs/factsheets/24d_fs.htm. Accessed January 3, 2015Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005b) Reregistration Eligibility Decision for 2,4-D. EPA 738-R-05-002. In Office of Pesticide Programs, ed. Washington, DC: USEPA Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2012) 2,4-D; Order Denying NRDC's Petition to Revoke Tolerances. Washington, DC: Federal Register. Pp 23125–23158 Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Human Health Risk Assessment. DP No. D389455. in Office of Pesticide Programs, ed. Washington, DC: USEPA Google Scholar
[USEPA] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2014) EPA-HQ-OPP-2014-0195, Final Registration—Enlist Duo (10-15-14). in Office of Pesticide Programs, ed. Washington, DC: USEPA Google Scholar
[USGPO] U.S. Government Publishing Office (2012) 40 CFR 180.142 2,4-D; Tolerances for Residues. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CFR-2012-title40-vol25/CFR-2012-title40-vol25-sec180-142. Accessed August 1, 2015.Google Scholar
Van Eerd, L, McLean, M, Stephenson, G, Hall, J (2004) Resistance to quinclorac and ALS-inhibitor herbicides in Galium spurium is conferred by two distinct genes. Weed Res 44:355–365 Google Scholar
Van Ravenzwaay, B, Hardwick, T, Needham, D, Pethen, S, Lappin, G (2003) Comparative metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in rat and dog. Xenobiotica 33:805–821 Google Scholar
Van Rensburg, E, Breeze, VG (1990) Uptake and development of phytotoxicity following exposure to vapour of the herbicide 14C 2,4-D butyl by tomato and lettuce plants. Environ Exp Bot 30:405–414 Google Scholar
Vila-Aiub, MM, Neve, P, Powles, SB (2009) Fitness costs associated with evolved herbicide resistance alleles in plants. New Phytol 184:751–767 Google Scholar
von Stackelberg, K (2013) A systematic review of carcinogenic outcomes and potential mechanisms from exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA in the environment. J Toxicol Volume 2013, Article ID 371610. Pages 53 pGoogle Scholar
Wall, DA (1996) Effect of sublethal dosages of 2,4-D on annual broadleaf crops. Can J Plant Sci 76:179–185 Google Scholar
Walsh, M, Owen, M, Powles, S (2007) Frequency and distribution of herbicide resistance in Raphanus raphanistrum populations randomly collected across the Western Australian wheat belt. Weed Res 47:542–550 Google Scholar
Walsh, TA, Neal, R, Merlo, AO, Honma, M, Hicks, GR, Wolff, K, Matsumura, W, Davies, JP (2006) Mutations in an auxin receptor homolog AFB5 and in SGT1b confer resistance to synthetic picolinate auxins and not to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or indole-3-acetic acid in Arabidopsis . Plant Physiol 142:542–552 Google Scholar
Wang, R, Estelle, M (2014) Diversity and specificity: auxin perception and signaling through the TIR1/AFB pathway. Curr Opin Plant Biol 21:51–58 Google Scholar
Wax, LM, Knuth, LA, Slife, FW (1969) Response of soybeans to 2,4-D, dicamba, and picloram. Weed Sci 17:388–393 Google Scholar
Weinberg, T, Stephenson, GR, McLean, MD, Hall, JC (2006) MCPA (4-chloro-2-ethylphenoxyacetate) resistance in hemp-nettle (Galeopsis tetrahit L.). J Agric Food Chem 54:9126–9134 Google Scholar
[WHO] World Health Organization (1996) Pesticide Residues in Food—1996, 2,4-D. Report of the Joint Meeting of the FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment and the WHO Expert Group on Pesticide Residues Google Scholar
[WHO] World Health Organization (1997) Pesticide Residues in Food—1997. Part II—Toxicological and Environmental. WHO/PCS. Pp 255–346 Google Scholar
[WHO] World Health Organization (2015) IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. List of Classifications. Volumes 1–113. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. Accessed October 15, 2015Google Scholar
Wilson, RD, Geronimo, J, Armbruster, JA (1997) 2,4-D dissipation in field soils after applications of 2,4-D dimethylamine salt and 2,4-D 2-ethylhexyl ester. Environ Toxicol Chem 16:1239–1246 Google Scholar
Wilson, RG (1975) Breakdown and movement of formulated 2,4-D compounds in soil–water systems. Ph.D Dissertation. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. 85 pGoogle Scholar
Wilson, RG, Cheng, HH (1976) Breakdown and movement of 2,4-D in soil under field conditions. Weed Sci 24:461–466 Google Scholar
Wolf, TM, Caldwell, BC, McIntyre, GI, Hsiao, AI (1992) Effect of droplet size and herbicide concentration on absorption and translocation of C-14 2,4-D in oriental mustard (Sisymbrium orientale). Weed Sci 40:568–575 Google Scholar
Wright, TR, Shan, G, Walsh, TA, Lira, JM, Cui, C, Song, P, Zhuang, M, Arnold, NL, Lin, G, Yau, K (2010) Robust crop resistance to broadleaf and grass herbicides provided by aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase transgenes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:20240–20245 Google Scholar
[WSSA] Weed Science Society of America (2014) Herbicide Handbook. 10th edn. Lawrence, KS: Weed Science Society of America Google Scholar
Xu, T, Wang, Y, Liu, X, Gao, S, Qi, M, Li, T (2015) Solanum lycopersicum IAA15 functions in the 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicide mechanism of action by mediating abscisic acid signalling. J Exp Bot 66:3977–3990 Google Scholar
Yang, H, Murphy, AS (2009) Functional expression and characterization of Arabidopsis ABCB, AUX 1 and PIN auxin transporters in Schizosaccharomyces pombe . Plant J 59:179–191 Google Scholar
Yeary, RA (1986) Urinary excretion of 2,4-D in commercial lawn specialists. Appl Ind Hyg 1:119–121 Google Scholar
Yu, H, Moss, BL, Jang, SS, Prigge, M, Klavins, E, Nemhauser, JL, Estelle, M (2013a) Mutations in the TIR1 auxin receptor that increase affinity for auxin/indole-3-acetic acid proteins result in auxin hypersensitivity. Plant Physiol 162:295–303 Google Scholar
Yu, Q, Han, H, Cawthray, GR, Wang, SF, Powles, SB (2013b) Enhanced rates of herbicide metabolism in low herbicide-dose selected resistant Lolium rigidum . Plant Cell Environ 36:818–827 Google Scholar
Yu, Q, Powles, S (2014) Metabolism-based herbicide resistance and cross-resistance in crop weeds: a threat to herbicide sustainability and global crop production. Plant Physiol 166:1106–1118 Google Scholar
Zahm, SH, Weisenburger, DD, Babbitt, PA, Saal, RC, Vaught, JB, Cantor, KP, Blair, A (1990) A case-control study of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in eastern Nebraska. Epidemiology 1:349–356 Google Scholar
Zazimalova, E, Petrasek, J, Benkova, E (2014) Auxin and its Role in Plant Development. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag ISBN 978-3-7091-1526-8 (e-book). DOI: . 444 pGoogle Scholar
Zimmerlin, A, Durst, F (1992) Aryl hydroxylation of the herbicide diclofop by a wheat cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase substrate specificity and physiological activity. Plant Physiol 100:874–881 Google Scholar
Zimmerlin, A, Salaün, J-P, Durst, F, Mioskowski, C (1992) Cytochrome P-450-dependent hydroxylation of lauric acid at the subterminal position and oxidation of unsaturated analogs in wheat microsomes. Plant Physiol 100:868–873 Google Scholar
Zollinger, R, Markell, S, Knodel, J, Gray, J, Jantzi, D, Hagemeister, K, Kilpatrick, P (2012) Pesticide Use and Pest Management Practices for Major Crops in North Dakota, 2012. North Dakota State University in cooperation with North Dakota Agricultural Statistics Serice, Extension Publication W-1711. http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/pests/w1711.pdf. Accessed January, 2015Google Scholar