¹ See Beales, A. C. F., The History of Peace, London, 1931, p. 39Google Scholar; Kayser, E. L., The Grand Social Enterprise, New York, 1932, pp. 66–7Google Scholar; Hemleben, S. J., Plans for Peace through Six Centuries, Chicago, 1943, pp. 82–7Google Scholar; Schwarzenberger, G., ‘Bentham's Contribution to International Law and Organization’, Jeremy Bentham and the Law, ed. Keeton, G. W. and Schwarzenberger, G., London, 1948, pp. 152–84Google Scholar; Baumgardt, David, Bentham and the Ethics of Today, Princeton, 1952, pp. 158–62, 473–5Google Scholar; Kinsley, F. H., Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge, 1963, pp. 81–6Google Scholar; Howard, Michael, War and the Liberal Conscience, Oxford, 1981, pp. 32–5.Google Scholar

² The Works of Jeremy Bentham, ed. Bowring, John, 11 vols., Edinburgh, 1843, ii. 537–60Google Scholar. Kayser, Schwarzenberger, and Baumgardt, all in varying degrees Bentham specialists, used other sources too; but none of them was primarily concerned with giving a detailed view of Bentham's ideas on peace and war.

³ Bowring, , ii. 546–60Google Scholar. Extracts were reproduced in Benthamiana, ed. Burton, John Hill, Edinburgh, 1843, pp. 35–40, 41–3Google Scholar, and the whole ‘Plan’ was reprinted directly from Bowring in 1927 and 1939. It was also included in Everett, Charles W.'s Jeremy Bentham, London, 1966, pp. 195–229.Google Scholar

⁴ Bowring, , x. 581.Google Scholar

⁵ ‘Finance’, c. 10 1789Google Scholar, Bentham MSS UC clxvi. 21, University College London.Google Scholar

⁶ ‘Indirect Legislation’, c. 1782Google Scholar, UC lxxxvii. 118–20Google Scholar; Chrestomathia, ed. Smith, M. J. and Burston, W. H., Oxford, 1983 (The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham), pp. 89, 95Google Scholar; First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code, ed. Schofield, Philip, Oxford, 1989 (CW), pp. 183–86.Google Scholar

⁷ ‘Projet Forme Entregens’, UC xxxiii. 82Google Scholar; ‘Projet Militaire’, ibid., 84–5. This material was used in Traités de législation civile et pénale, ed. Dumont, P. É. L., 2 vols., Paris, 1802, i. 331, 338Google Scholar (Bowring, , iii. 201, 202).Google Scholar

⁸ UC xxv. 25Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 545–56).Google Scholar

⁹ In Bowring, , ii. 545Google Scholar these measures are described as a ‘palliative’. This word was supplied by the editor, and does not appear in the MSS.

¹⁰ Of Laws in General, ed. Hart, H. L. A., London, 1970 (CW), pp. 245–46Google Scholar. See also ‘Indirect Legislation’, UC lxxxvii. 3Google Scholar. This may not of course mean much in itself. Even as peace-loving a man as Richard Cobden occasionally used warlike imagery. See the copies of his letters to Wilson, George, chairman of the Anti-Corn Law League, 3 03 1842, 28 02 1852, 22 03 1857Google Scholar, Cobden papers 59–61, West Sussex Record Office, Chichester.

¹¹ For Samuel Bentham see Anderson, M. S., ‘Samuel Bentham in Russia’, American Slavic and East European Review, xv (1956), 157–72Google Scholar and Christie, Ian R., ‘Samuel Bentham and the Russian Dneiper Flotilla’, The Slavonic and East European Review, 1 (1972), 173–97.Google Scholar

¹² Bentham, to Wilson, George, 2–3 10 1781Google Scholar, The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, vol. iii, ed. Christie, Ian R., London, 1971 (CW), pp. 102–3, 104–5Google Scholar; Bentham, to Dumont, , 1 07 1805Google Scholar, The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, vol. vii, ed. Dinwiddy, J. R., Oxford, 1988 (CW), p. 305.Google Scholar

¹³ Bentham, to Wilson, , 19 09 1781Google Scholar, Correspondence (CW), iii. 92.Google Scholar

¹⁴ ‘Panopticon’, ‘E. India Company’, 02 1794Google Scholar, UC cviia. 71Google Scholar. See also ‘Panopticon’, n.d., UC cxixa. 107Google Scholar, where Bentham argues that popular anti-military feelings are encouraged by rulers as a means of turning soldiers against the people.

¹⁵ First Principles (CW), pp. 183–86.Google Scholar

¹⁶ The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, vol. viii, ed. Conway, Stephen, Oxford, 1988 (CW), pp. 133–34.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Even on this score Bentham's proposal was curious. In 1789 he had written that ‘the profit of privateering has been thought to be not greater upon the whole than that of other businesses, but rather less’. UC xxv. 130Google Scholar. Moreover, at about the same time he had recommended the abolition of privateering. See ibid., 120.

¹⁸ Bowring, , x. 581.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Bentham's thinking might have been similar to that expressed much earlier in a letter to Abbot, John Farr of 12/23 09 1787Google Scholar, in which he compared Samuel's military activities in Russia with his stepbrother Charles Abbot's progress as a lawyer (Correspondence (CW), iii. 568):Google Scholar

Remember me affectionately to Charles. He is taking great strides, I make no doubt, towards the top of his nasty prostitute profession. I will not pretend to wish that families may be ruined for his sake, any more than that Turks may have their throats cut for Sam's: all I can wish is, that if Turks must be killed, Sam may have some share in the killing of them: and that if Christians must be plunder'd, Charles may have a good finger in the plunder pie.

²⁰ UC xxv. 119.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid., 26 (Bowring, , ii. 546Google Scholar). See also UC xxv. 135Google Scholar and Bentham's annotations in his copy of SirDalrymple, John's Queries concerning the Conduct which England should follow in Foreign Politics, London, 1789, p. 49 (British Library shelf mark CT 57 (2)).Google Scholar

²² See my ‘Bentham versus Pitt: Jeremy Bentham and British Foreign Policy 1789’, Historical Journal, xxx (1987), 791–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²³ Burns, J. H., ‘Bentham and the French Revolution’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, xvi (1966), 112.Google Scholar

²⁴ See Cookson, J. E., The Friends of Peace, Cambridge, 1982CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Bentham's connec tion with the Strutts see Filton, R. S. and Wadsworth, A. P., The Strutts and the Arkwrights, Manchester, 1958, pp. 181, 221Google Scholar; Bentham, to Koe, J. H., 26–8 07 1816Google Scholar, Correspondence (CW), viii. 535Google Scholar. For Bentham's association with Roscoe, via Brougham, see Brougham, to Roscoe, , 14 07 1810Google Scholar, British Library Additional MSS 34,079, fo. 83; Roscoe, to Brougham, , 29 07 1810Google Scholar, Roscoe papers 466, Central Libraries, Liverpool.

²⁵ Correspondence (CW), viii. 433.Google Scholar

²⁶ Bentham, to Bentham, Samuel, 10–16 05 1806Google Scholar, Correspondence (CW), vii. 342Google Scholar. In Feb. 1806 Bentham had lent de Vattel, Dumont Emmerich's Le droit des gens, Neuchatel, 1758Google Scholar, a standard work that Bentham wanted to see replaced. See Bentham papers, BL Add. MSS 33,564, fo. 39; and for Bentham on Vattel, Bowring, , x. 584.Google Scholar

²⁷ But he made substantial progress: see Dumont MSS 60, Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire, Geneva.

²⁸ The correspondence and Bentham's notes are at BL Add. MSS 30,151. A draft of the notes is in the Bentham papers at BL Add. MSS 33,551, fos. 120–21. See also Nys, Ernest, ‘Notes inédites de Bentham sur le droit international’. The Law Quarterly Review, i (1885), 225–31.Google Scholar

²⁹ BL Add. MSS 30,151, fo. 12.

³⁰ See Annual Report of the Committee of the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace for 1823, London, 1823, p. 33Google Scholar; Annual Report … for 1824, London, 1824, p. 29Google Scholar; Annual Report … for 1825, London, 1825, p. 44.Google Scholar

³¹ For Bowring and the Peace Society see The Herald of Peace, iii (1821), 132–33Google Scholar; ibid., n.s., i (1822), 4, 6, 132. For Bowring and Bentham see Bartle, G. F., ‘Jeremy Bentham and John Bowring’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, xxxvi (1963), 27–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² UC xxv. 22Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 544).Google Scholar

³³ See Dinwiddy, J. R., ‘Bentham's Transition to Political Radicalism, 1809–10’, Journal of the History of Ideas, xxxv (1975), 683–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁴ ‘Finance’, c. 10 1789Google Scholar, UC clxvi. 21.Google Scholar

³⁵ ‘Récompenses Educ. Science’, c. 1785Google Scholar, UC cxlii. 255Google Scholar, reproduced in Théorie des peines et des récompenses, ed. Dumont, P.É. L., 2nd. edn., 2 vols., Paris and London, 1818, ii. 289Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 259).Google Scholar

³⁶ ‘Prefat’, c. 1789Google Scholar, UC cix. 1.Google Scholar

³⁷ The Penny Magazine, 27 07 1839Google Scholar. I have not traced this quotation in Bentham's work.

³⁸ ‘Manual’, ‘Col. & Navy Brouillon’, UC xvii. 77.Google Scholar

³⁹ UC cix. 2.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ First Principles (CW), p. 163Google Scholar. For similar sentiments see Bentham, 's notebook and diary, 02 1822Google Scholar, UC clxxiii. 66Google Scholar: ‘Nations are bandied from foot to foot like balls for the sport of Monarchs.’ (Bowring, , x. 531.)Google Scholar

⁴¹ ‘Emancipation Spanish’, 24 06 1820Google Scholar, UC clxiv. 109, 156.Google Scholar

⁴² ‘Circulating Annuities’, 1800, Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings, ed. Stark, W., 3 vols., London, 1952–1954, ii. 267 nGoogle Scholar; Deontology, ed. Goldworth, Amnon, Oxford, 1983 (CW), pp. 230–31.Google Scholar

⁴³ ‘Proposal for a Mode of Taxation’, Stark, , i. 409Google Scholar. See also UC xxv. 130.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ ‘Democracy representation less prone to war than Monarchy’, 19 05 1817Google Scholar, UC xv. 82.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ UC xxv. 58Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 560).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Observations on the Restrictive and Prohibitory Commercial System, ed. Bowring, John, London, 1821, p. 38Google Scholar (Bowring, , iii. 100)Google Scholar; UC xxv. 123.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Plan of Parliamentary Reform in the Form of a Catechism, London, 1817, p. xivGoogle Scholar (Bowring, , iii. 439).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ ‘Emancipation Spanish’, UC clxiv. 156.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ UC xxv. 54Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 558).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ ‘Democracy has it a tendency to produce unjust wars?’, 19 05 1817Google Scholar, UC xv. 81.Google Scholar

⁵¹ UC cix. 2.Google Scholar

⁵² ‘Advertisement’ to ‘Defence of Economy against the late Mr Burke’, The Pamphleteer, ix (1817), 6–7Google Scholar (Bowring, , v. 280).Google Scholar

⁵³ See ‘Indirect Legislation’, c. 1782Google Scholar, UC lxxxvii. 48Google Scholar; UC cix. 2Google Scholar; ‘Radicalism not Dangerous’, 1819–1820Google Scholar, Bowring, , iii. 611nGoogle Scholar. It would seem that Bentham thought SirClerke, Philip Jennings's contractors act of 19 06 1782 was inadequate.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See, for instance, ‘War-promoting Droits’, 1810Google Scholar, UC cxxixb. 655–66Google Scholar; ‘Emancipation Spanish’, UC clxiv. 110Google Scholar; First Principles (CW), pp. 34 n, 257 n.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ ‘International Principles and Measures’, 1789Google Scholar, UC xxv. 134.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ ‘War Balance’, ibid., 130. See also Bentham, 's first three ‘Anti-Machiavel’ letters, The Public Advertiser, 15–16 06, 3–4 and 11 07 1789Google Scholar (Bowring, , x. 201–11Google Scholar). For the correct order of these letters, and the existence of a fourth, see my ‘Bentham versus Pitt’, 797–99.Google Scholar

Later, when he wrote the material used in The Book of Fallacies, ed. Bingham, Peregrine, London, 1824Google Scholar, Bentham noted that in international affairs the balance of power was a ‘legitimate object’, but he remained doubtful whether it could be attained. See Bowring, , ii. 447.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ ‘Inter. Nat Pacif & Emanen.’, UC xxv. 120Google Scholar. See also ‘International Principles and Measures’, ibid., 133. It was no doubt because of this tendency to enter into treaty commitments to maintain the balance of power that Bentham in 1798 identified the ‘Ballance of power’ itself as a cause of war. See UC cviib. 150.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ ‘Cabinet no secrecy’, UC xxv. 50Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 554–55Google Scholar). See also the second ‘Anti-Machiavel’, The Public Advertiser, 3–4 07 1789Google Scholar (Bowring, , x. 205, where it is incorrectly numbered the first).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ ‘Inter nat. Pacif. and Emanc.’, UC xxv. 123Google Scholar. See also ‘Internat Prof’, ibid., 110.

⁶⁰ UC xxv. 51Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 555&n).Google Scholar

⁶¹ UC xxv. 126Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 544).Google Scholar

⁶² ‘Poor-Non Adults Studies Useless’, c. 1796Google Scholar, UC cliiia. 115Google Scholar. Later still, he recalled his childhood reading of de Rapin, Paul's History of EnglandGoogle Scholar, ‘a history of throat-cutting on the largest scale, for the sake of plunder; and such throat-cuttings and plunderings he places at the summit of virtue’. Bowring, , x. 12.Google Scholar

⁶³ UC xxv. 51Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 556).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ UC xxv. 108Google Scholar; The Book of Fallacies, p. 216Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 437Google Scholar). See also, for ‘Honour & Glory’ as causes of war, ‘Political Prospects or What is to be done? or What is to become of us?’, 09 1798Google Scholar, UC cviib. 150Google Scholar and ‘Colonies Thoughts’, 4 01 1802Google Scholar, UC cxvia. 232.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ UC xxv. 126Google Scholar; ibid., 44, 54 (Bowring, , ii. 549, 557Google Scholar). See also UC xvii. 54Google Scholar (Stark, , i. 212–13Google Scholar) and Jeremy Bentham to the National Convention of France, London, 1793, pp. 16–17Google Scholar (Bowring, , iv. 411).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ See Semmel, Bernard, ‘The Philosophic Radicals and Colonialism’, Journal of Economic History, xxi (1961), 508Google Scholar, and, generally, Winch, Donald, Classical Political Economy and Colonies, London, 1968, pp. 25–38.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ ‘Institute of Political Economy’, 1801–1804Google Scholar, Stark, , iii. 353 n.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ UC xxv. 39Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 547Google Scholar; Stark, , i. 211Google Scholar n). See also UC xxv. 121.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ UC xxv. 4, 124Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 539, 544).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Bowring, , ii. 540Google Scholar: a translation of Bentham's French at UC xxv. 4.Google Scholar

⁷¹ UC xxv. 27Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 552).Google Scholar

⁷² UC xxv. 106Google Scholar. Much later, in a letter to de Mora, José Joaquín of 11 1820Google Scholar, Bentham went out of his way not to use the word ‘glorious’ on the ground that it ‘is so stained by blood and vanity’. UC xiii. 43.Google Scholar

⁷³ UC cix. 2Google Scholar. On 4 May 1822 Bentham wrote in his notebook that religion is ‘an engine, invented by Corruptionists, at the command of Tyrants, for the manufactory of dupes’. UC clxxiii. 75.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ UC xxv. 133.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Ibid., 124, 134 (Bowring, , ii. 544, 550Google Scholar); UC xxv. 126.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ See Bentham's notes in Dalrymple, 's Queries, p. 15Google Scholar (BL shelf mark CT 57 (2)); UC xxv. 1, 32–3Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 537, 552–53Google Scholar); UC xxv. 121Google Scholar. See also BL Add. MSS 30, 151, fos. 17–18. Bernard Semmel mentions Bentham's defence of neutral rights in his Liberalism and Naval Strategy, Boston, Mass., and London, 1986, esp. pp. 51–2.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ UC xxv. 24, 134Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 545, 549).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ BL Add. MSS 30, 151, fo. 12; ‘Legislator's Inaugural Declaration’, s. 8, Constitutional Code, vol. i, ed. Rosen, F. and Burns, J. H., Oxford, 1983 (CW), pp. 142–43.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ UC xxv. 124Google Scholar (Bowling, , ii. 544–45).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ UC xxv. 134Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 546Google Scholar; Stark, , i. 211Google Scholar). See also UC xxv. 110Google Scholar and The Public Advertiser, 15–16 06 1789Google Scholar (Bowring, , x. 207Google Scholar): ‘Of the non-necessity of all alliances to this country… my conviction is as strong as of my own existence. The fewer allies, the more friends.’

⁸¹ UC xxv. 110.Google Scholar

⁸² Ibid., 132 (Bowring, , ii. 550Google Scholar). See also Bentham to the Morellet, Abbé, 18 06 1789, The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, vol. iv, ed. Milne, A. T., London, 1981 (CW), p. 76.Google Scholar

⁸³ First Principles (CW), pp. 177–78Google Scholar. See also Bowring, , x. 530–31.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ ‘Democracy has it a tendency to produce unjust wars?’, UC xv. 81.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ UC xxv. 38Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 547)Google Scholar. See also UC xxv. 61–2Google Scholar and The Public Advertiser, 3–4 07 1789Google Scholar (Bowring, , x. 205)Google Scholar: ‘Secrecy is the known companion of guilt: publicity of probity and innocence.’

⁸⁶ Constitutional Code, vol. i (CW), p. 426.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ ‘Projet Matière. Récompenses nuisibles’, UC cxlii. 69–70Google Scholar. This material formed the basis of Théorie des peines et des récompenses, ii. 69–70Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 209).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Bowring, , ii. 545Google Scholar: translations of UC xxv. 124.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ UC cix. 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Ibid.

⁹¹ UC xxv. 132Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 548&nGoogle Scholar); ‘Finance’, c. 10 1789Google Scholar, UC clxvi. 24.Google Scholar

⁹² UC xxv. 29Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 551).Google Scholar

⁹³ UC xxv. 134Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 550 n).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Bowring, , ii. 540Google Scholar: a translation of UC xxv. 4.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ BL Add. MSS 30, 151, fo. 13.

⁹⁶ Ibid., fos. 15–16.

⁹⁷ Ibid., fo. 12.

⁹⁸ UC xxv. 35, 132Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 554)Google Scholar. See also UC cix. 2Google Scholar, where Bentham wrote of an ‘Areopagus—or European Diet’.

⁹⁹ BL Add. MSS 30, 151, fos. 15–16.

¹⁰⁰ UC xxv. 35, 132Google Scholar (Bowring, , ii. 554).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ BL add. MSS 30, 151, fos. 15–16.

¹⁰² Ibid., fos. 17–18.

¹⁰³ Bentham had read The Letters of Valens, London, 1777Google Scholar, now attributed to William Burke, an exposition of the opposition case in the American war. Bentham's copy, with annotations and underlinings, is at BL shelf mark 08138 dd. 50 (7).

¹⁰⁴ Rights of Man, Pt. I, London, 1791: Harmondsworth, 1984 edn., p. 145.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ See UC xxv. 121Google Scholar; Bowring, , ii. 546 nGoogle Scholar; Stark, , i. 212–13Google Scholar. For French writers see Kinsley, , p. 82&nGoogle Scholar, and for Bentham's reading of Condillac, 's Le commerce et le gouvernement, Amsterdam, 1776Google Scholar, see ‘Indirect Legislation’, UC lxxxvii. 47, 130.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ SirSteuart, James, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Oeconomy, 2 vols., London, 1767, i. 448Google Scholar; Bentham, to Anderson, , 28 05 1783Google Scholar, Correspondence (CW), iii. 166.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual Peace and other Essays, ed. Humphrey, Ted, Indianapolis and Cambridge, Mass., 1983, p. 116Google Scholar; Paine, , Rights of Man, Pt. I, pp. 146–47Google Scholar; Price, Richard, Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, London, 1784, pp. 14–15.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ For a brief discussion of these projects see Howard, , pp. 19, 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brock, Peter, Pacifism in Europe to 1914, Princeton, 1972, pp. 275–76.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Schwarzenberger, , ‘Bentham's Contribution to International Law’, 165Google Scholar; Hinsley, , pp. 86, 94Google Scholar; Ralston, J. H., International Arbitration from Athens to Locarno, Stanford, Ca., 1929, pp. 122–23.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ See my ‘Bentham versus Pitt’, esp. 802–9.Google Scholar

¹¹¹ See Hart, H. L. A., ‘The Demystification of the Law’, Essays on Bentham, Oxford, 1982, pp. 21–39.Google Scholar

¹¹² Bentham had written of the need for an international code as early as 1782. See ‘Projet Forme Entregens’, UC xxxiii. 81–2Google Scholar, used by Dumont, in Traités de législation civile et pénale, i. 328–31Google Scholar (Bowring, , iii. 200–1).Google Scholar

Significantly, perhaps, when Bentham wrote ‘A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace’ he mused: ‘This belongs partly to Constitutional partly to International Law— But principally and more obviously to the latter—and therefore had best be introduced under that head.’ (UC xxv. 120Google Scholar.) From this it seems that he even saw the ‘Plan’—which was clearly provoked by the immediate political situation—as fitting into his general scheme.

¹¹³ Howard, , p. 33.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Hobhouse, L. T., Democracy and Reaction, London, 1904, pp. 172, 174–75Google Scholar; [Hirst, F. W.,] The Arbiter in Council, London, 1906, pp. 347–48.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ I am working on this subject and hope soon to be able to present my findings.