Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-30T21:35:56.691Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Town wastes, agricultural sustainability and Victorian sewage

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 February 2009

Abstract

In analysing the practicability of Victorian proposals to dispose of urban wastes, valuable insights may be gained from the commentaries of agriculturalists and their scientific advisers. The paper reconstructs the debate as to how the sewage of towns and cities might be transferred to farmland, the developing concepts of sewage farming and the ‘sewage farm’, the increasing disillusionment of farmers with sewage irrigation and, finally, the acknowledgement by the turn of the century that the recycling of such wastes was irrelevant to the needs of town and country alike.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Wohl, A.S., Endangered Lives. Public Health in Victorian Britain (London, 1983).Google Scholar

2 Douglas, M., Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London, 1966).Google Scholar

3 Luckin, B., Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol, 1986)Google Scholar; Hamlin, C., A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth Century Britain (Bristol, 1990).Google Scholar

4 Hassan, J.A., ‘The growth and impact of the British water industry in the nineteenth century’, Economic History Review, 38 (1985), 531–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5 Finer, S.E., The Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick (London, 1952), 218–24Google Scholar; Hamlin, C., ‘Edwin Chadwick and the engineers: systems and antisystems in the pipe-and-brick sewers war’, Technology and Culture, 33 (1992), 680709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Chadwick, E., Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, ed. Flinn, M.W. (Edinburgh, 1965).Google Scholar

7 Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 10 & 11 Victoria, , c. 34.Google Scholar

8 Luckin, Pollution and Control.

9 Chadwick, , Report on the Sanitary Condition, 120.Google Scholar

10 Finer, , Sir Edwin Chadwick, 223.Google Scholar

11 Sheail, J., ‘Constraints on water-resource development in England and Wales: the concept and management of compensation flows’, Journal of Environmental Management, 19 (1984), 351–61Google Scholar; Sheail, J., ‘Government and the perception of reservoir development in Britain’, Planning Perspectives, 1 (1986), 4560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12 Finer, , Sir Edwin Chadwick, 223–4.Google Scholar

13 Parliamentary Papers, 1846, X, Select Committee on Metropolitan Sewage Manure, Report and Minutes of Evidence, QQ 1494–1566; Lewis, R.A., Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement (London, 1952).Google Scholar

14 Lewis, , Edwin Chadwick, 116Google Scholar; Parliamentary Papers, 1846, Report and Minutes of Evidence, Q 1530.Google Scholar

15 Lewis, , Edwin Chadwick, 116–20.Google Scholar

16 Reid, D., Paris Sewers and Sewermen (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 54.Google Scholar

17 Johnson, C.W., On Liquid Manures (London, 1837).Google Scholar

18 Liebig, J. von, Letters on the Subject of the Utilization of Metropolitan Sewage (London, 1865).Google Scholar

19 Parliamentary Debates, CLXXIX (1865), 374–8.Google Scholar

20 Voelcker, A., ‘On the composition and agricultural value of earth-closet manure’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 8 (1872), 185203.Google Scholar

21 Moule, H., ‘Earth versus water for the removal and utilisation of excrementitious matter’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 24 (1863), 111–23.Google Scholar

22 Scott Burn, R., ‘Notes on the various agricultural aspects of the town sewage question’, Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, 11 (1863), 144–99Google Scholar; Angell, L., ‘The President's address’, Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, 1 (1873), 34–8.Google Scholar

23 Norfolk Record Office, MSS N/TC 57/1.

24 Voelcker, ‘On the composition and agricultural value’.

25 Storey, J., Historical Sketch of Some of the Principal Works and Undertakings of the Council of the Borough of Leicester (Leicester, 1895), 1216Google Scholar; Leicester Sewerage Act, 1851, 14Google Scholar & 15 Victoria, c. ii.Google Scholar

26 Wicksteed, T., ‘Sewage manure’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 2 (1854), 784–8.Google Scholar

27 Sidney, S., ‘Sewage manure’, Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 2 (1854), 805–6Google Scholar; Goddard, N., ‘19th-century recycling. The Victorians and the agricultural utilisation of sewage’, History Today, 31 (1981), 82–7.Google Scholar

28 Way, J.T., ‘On the use of town sewage as manure’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 15 (1854), 135–67.Google Scholar

29 Parliamentary Papers, 1857–18, XXXII, Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Best Mode of Distributing the Sewage of Towns, and Applying it to Beneficial and Profitable Uses, Preliminary Report; Little, H., ‘Sewage farming’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 7 (1871), 389420.Google Scholar

30 Johnson, , On Liquid Manures, 1113Google Scholar; Pusey, P., ‘On the theory and practice of water-meadows’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 10 (1849), 462–79.Google Scholar

31 Dennison, J.E., ‘On the Duke of Portland's water-meadows at Clipstone Park’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1 (1840), 359–69Google Scholar; Spooner, L.H., Suggestions on Town Sewage and its Application to Land by Gravitation (London, 1865).Google Scholar

32 Mechi, J.J., ‘The new system of irrigating land’, in Stockhawt, J. A., A Familiar Exposition of the Chemistry of Agriculture (London, 1855), 366–8Google Scholar; Mechi, J.J., ‘On the application of town sewage to a large agricultural area’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 8 (1860), 261–73.Google Scholar

33 Sewage Utilization Act, 1865, 28 & 29 Victoria, , c. 74Google Scholar, and 1867, 30 & 31 Victoria, , c. 113.Google Scholar

34 Monson, E., ‘The sewage difficulty’, Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, 1 (1873), 6275.Google Scholar

35 Falkner, F., The Muck Manual (London, 1846).Google Scholar

36 Sidney, , ‘Sewage manure’, 805–6.Google Scholar

37 Johnson, , On Liquid Manures, 38–9.Google Scholar

38 Mathew, W.M., ‘Peru and the British guano market, 1840–1870’, Economic History Review, 23 (1970), 112–28Google Scholar; Skeggs, J.M., The Great Guano Rush (Basingstoke, 1994).Google Scholar

39 Fream, W., ‘Sir John Bennet Lawes’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 3rd ser., 11 (1900), 511–24Google Scholar; Dyke, G.V., John Bennet Lawes – the Record of his Genius (Chichester, 1991).Google Scholar

40 Liebig, J. von, ‘Utilisation of sewage’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 11 (1863), 656–7.Google Scholar

41 Gilbert, J.H., ‘Utilisation of sewage’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 11 (1863), 685–6.Google Scholar

42 Lawes, J.B., ‘Town sewage’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 1 (1865), 226–38Google Scholar; Lawes, J.B. and Gilbert, J.H., ‘On some points in connexion with the exhaustion of soils’, British Association. Manchester Report, Transactions Abstracts (1861), 84–5.Google Scholar

43 Mechi, ‘On the application of town sewage’.

44 Liebig, Letters on the Subject.

45 Hamlin, , A Science of Impurity, 34.Google Scholar

46 Lawes, J.B., ‘On the sewage of London’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 3 (1855), 263–84.Google Scholar

47 Dymond, R., ‘On liquid manure’, Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, 5 (1857), 144.Google Scholar

48 Voelcker, A., ‘On liquid manure’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 19 (1858), 519–52Google Scholar, and ‘On the commercial value of artificial manures’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 23 (1862), 277–86.Google Scholar

49 Way, ‘On the use of town sewage’.

50 Parliamentary Papers, 1865, XXVII, Commission… Distributing the Sewage of Towns…, Third Report; Lawes, J.B. and Gilbert, J.H., ‘On the composition, value and utilization of town sewage’, Journal of the Chemical Society of London, 4 (1866), 80128.Google Scholar

51 Lawes, J.B., ‘Town sewage’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 1 (1865), 226–38Google Scholar; Morton, ‘London sewage’.

52 Anonymous, ‘On the treatment and utilization of sewage’, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1870), 4975Google Scholar; Corfield, W.H. and Parkes, L.C., The Treatment and Utilisation of Sewage (London, 1887).Google Scholar

53 Parliamentary Papers, 1876, XXXVIII, Committee Appointed by the President of the Local Government Board to Inquire into the Several Modes of Treating Town Sewage, Report.

54 Dean, G.A., The Culture, Management and Improvement of Landed Estates (London, 1872), 220–5Google Scholar; Morton, J.C., ‘London sewage from the agricultural point of view’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 13 (1865), 185–94.Google Scholar

55 Sewell Read, C., ‘The disposal of sewage by small towns and villages’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 3rd ser., 1 (1890), 8695.Google Scholar

56 Luckin, Pollution and Control.

57 Public Health Supplementary Act (No. 2), 1852, 15 & 16 Victoria, , c. Ixix.Google Scholar

58 Warwickshire Record Office, CR 1538, 187; Leamington Spa Courier, 1 & 8 07 1865.Google Scholar

59 Warwickshire RO, CR 1563, 178–9 & 187–8; Royal Leamington Spa Courier, 5 05 1872.Google Scholar

60 Jones, A.S., ‘Sewage farm management’, Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal and County Engineers, 21 (1895), 266–72.Google Scholar

61 Morton, J.C., ‘Half-a-dozen English sewage farms’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 12 (1876), 407–39.Google Scholar

62 Anonymous, ‘Report of the judges appointed by the Royal Agricultural Society of England to adjudicate the prizes in the sewage farm competition’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd ser., 16 (1880), 180Google Scholar; Scott Watson, J.A., The History of the Royal Agricultural Society 18391939 (London, 1939).Google Scholar

63 Dean, G.A., The Culture, Management and Improvement of Landed Estates (London, 1872), 220–5.Google Scholar

64 Sidwick, J.M. and Murray, J.E., ‘A brief history of sewage treatment’, Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, 16 (1976), 6571 and 193–9.Google Scholar

65 Hamlin, A Science of Impurity.

66 Hamlin, C., ‘William Dibdin and the idea of biological sewage treatment’, Technology and Culture, 29 (1988), 189218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

67 Parliamentary Debates, XV (1893), 1766–8.Google Scholar

68 Parliamentary Papers, 1901, XXXIV, Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, Interim Report, Cd 685Google Scholar, and 1902, XXXV, Local Government Board, Thirty-first Annual Report, Cd 1231Google Scholar, cxx–cxxi.

69 Wohl, , Endangered Lives, 104.Google Scholar

70 Reid, , Paris Sewers, 179–80.Google Scholar

71 Goddard, ‘19th-century recycling’.

72 Parliamentray Papers, 1854–55, XIII, Select Committee on Public Health Bill, Report and Minutes of Evidence, QQ 1363–4; Parliamentary Papers, 1861, Second Report.Google Scholar

73 Morton, ‘London sewage’.

74 Tarr, J. A., ‘From city to farm: urban wastes and the American farmer’, Agricultural History, 49 (1975), 598612.Google ScholarPubMed

75 Munro, J.M.H., ‘Sewage disposal and river pollution’, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 3rd ser., 5 (1894), 342–52.Google Scholar

76 Williams, R., The Country and the City (London, 1993).Google Scholar

77 Thompson, F.M.L., ‘The second agricultural revolution, 1815–1880’, Economic History Review, 21 (1968), 6277.Google Scholar

78 Scott Burn, R., ‘Brief notes on some of the present phases of the town sewage question’, Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, 6 (1874), 87133.Google Scholar

79 Sheail, J., ‘Sewering the English suburbs: an inter-war perspective’, Journal of Historical Geography, 19 (1993), 433–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar