¹ See, for instance, Sassen, Saskia, The Global City: New York, London, and Tokyo (Princeton, 1991)Google Scholar; examples of works about ‘new’ American cities, see Alejandro Portes and Alex Stepick, City on the Edge: The Transformation of Miami (Berkeley, 1993); Appadurai, Arjun, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, 1996)Google Scholar, esp. ch. 2, ‘Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy’, 27–47; Mike Davis, Magical Urbanism: Latinos Reinvent the U.S. City (London, 2000).

² The work of Carl Nightingale and the recent books by Scott Kurashige and Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof represent a few of the more recent works that treat urban segregation as part of transnational forces. Nightingale, Carl H., ‘The transnational contexts of early twentieth-century American urban segregation’, Journal of Social History, 39 (2006), 667–702CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Before race mattered: geographies of the colour line in early colonial Madras and New York’, American Historical Review, 113 (2008), 48–71; Kurashige, Scott, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton, 2008)Google Scholar; Hoffnung-Garskof, Jesse, A Tale of Two Cities: Santo Domingo and New York after 1950 (Princeton, 2008)Google Scholar.

³ I draw my understanding of race ‘doing work’ from the historian Thomas C. Holt. See especially Holt's The Problem of Race in the Twenty-first Century (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2000).

⁴ See, for instance, Litwack, Leon, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁵ Fields, Barbara J., ‘Of rogues and geldings’, American Historical Review, 10 (2003), 1397–405CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ Gellman, David N. and Quigley, David (eds.), Jim Crow New York: A Documentary History of Race and Citizenship, 1777–1877 (New York, 2003)Google Scholar; Shah, Nayan, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley, 2001)Google Scholar; Perlstein, Rick, Nixonland: The Rise of A President and the Fracturing of America (New York, 2008)Google Scholar; Sugrue, Thomas J. and Skrentny, John D., ‘The white ethnic strategy’, in Schulman, Bruce J. and Zelizer, Julian E. (eds.), Rightward Bound Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Cambridge, MA, 2008), 171–92Google Scholar; Lassiter, Matthew D., The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, 2006)Google Scholar.

⁷ For a discussion of immigration's profound impact on every stratum of Miami society across the twentieth century, see Shell-Weiss, Melanie, Coming to Miami: A Social History (Gainesville, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁸ Dunn, Marvin, Black Miami in the Twentieth Century (Gainesville, 1997), 70Google Scholar; Albert W. Erkins, My Early Years in Florida: From 1905 (Ft Lauderdale, 975), 29, 38–9. On vice campaigns as a tool for racial segregation, see Fronc, Jennifer, ‘The horns of the dilemma: race mixing and the enforcement of Jim Crow in New York City’, Journal of Urban History, 33 (2006), 2–25, 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Nightingale, ‘The transnational contexts of early twentieth-century American urban segregation’; idem, ‘Before race mattered’.

¹⁰ Bramson, Seth, Speedway to Sunshine: The Story of the Florida East Coast Railway (Boston, MA, 1984), 69Google Scholar.

¹¹ ‘Odd Fellows’ Hall Dynamited’, Chicago Defender, 28 Jul. 1917, 1; Leon Cornick, ‘Florida mob's atrocities put “Huns” to shame’, Chicago Defender, 25 Feb. 1922, A3; Ramona Lowe, ‘Miami’, Chicago Defender, 22 Jan. 1949, 13. On the creation of these curfews across the American South, see Loewen, James W., Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York, 2005)Google Scholar. On white growers who sold Jim Crow as an enticement to investors and workers, see N.D.B. Connolly, ‘By eminent domain: race and capital in the building of an American South Florida’, University of Michigan Ph.D. thesis, 2008, esp. ch. 5, ‘The Jim Crow dialectic’.

¹² George, Paul S., ‘Policing Miami's black community, 1896–1930’, Florida Historical Quarterly, 57 (Apr. 1979), 434–50, 440Google Scholar.

¹³ Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Tense and tender ties: the politics of comparison in North American history and (post) colonial studies’, Journal of American History, 88 (2001), 829–65, 862; Loewen, Sundown Towns; C. de Thierry, ‘Our policy in the West Indies’, in Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, 37, ed. Royal Commonwealth Society (London, 1906), 201. What Theodore Roosevelt described in 1904 as the United States’ ‘international police power’ began with the US taking the Panama Canal (1903), then taking over the customs services of the Dominican Republic (1905) and Nicaragua (1911), followed by protracted military occupations in those two countries as well as Haiti (1915 to 1934), and smaller operations in northern Mexico (1916), the port city of Vera Cruz (1914) and the Danish Virgin Islands (1916); Antonio Gaztambide-Géigel, ‘The invention of the Caribbean’, Social and Economic Studies, 53 (2004), 127–58, 137. On segregation in the early twentieth century Caribbean, see Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985).

¹⁴ Johnson, Howard, ‘Bahamian labor migration to Florida in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries’, International Migration Review, 22 (1988), 84–103, 88–90, 93, 103CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Mohl, Raymond A., ‘Ethnic politics in Miami, 1960–1985’, in Miller, Randall M. and Pozzetta, George E. (eds.), Shades of the Sunbelt: Essays on Ethnicity, Race, and the Urban South (Boca Raton, 1989), 148–9Google Scholar; Charter of the City of Miami, approved 31 May 1913; Charter of the City of Miami, 1921, Section 3 ‘The City of Miami shall have the power . . .’, 6, point (ii); Buchanan v. Warley, 245 US 60 (1917); State of Florida v. Wright, 25 So. 2nd 86 (1946); Silver, Christopher, ‘The racial origins of zoning in American cities’, in Thomas, June Manning and Ritzdorf, Marsha (eds.), Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, 1997), 23–42Google Scholar; Nightingale, ‘The transnational contexts of early twentieth-century American urban segregation’.

¹⁶ Freund, David M.P., Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ Planning Board of the City of Miami, the Slum Clearance Committee and the Dade County Health Department, Dwelling Condition in the Two Principle Blighted Areas (1950), 41.

¹⁸ Connolly, ‘By eminent domain’; Dorothy Jenkins Fields, ‘Tracing Overtown's vernacular architecture’, Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue (1998), 322–33, 325; Margaret Garb, ‘Drawing the “colour line”: race and real estate in early twentieth-century Chicago’, Journal of Urban History, 32 (2006), 773–87, 783–4; Marjory Stoneman Douglas, ‘Coconut Grove, Florida, faces its slums’, Marjory Stoneman Douglas Papers, Series III, articles and manuscripts, box 32, folder 17, ‘Article “Coconut Grove . . .’, Ladies Home Journal, 10 (1950), 29; Directorio de Miami, Miami Beach (1951), 15, 27, 28, Special Collection, Otto Richter Library, University of Miami, Miami, FL (hereafter ORL).

¹⁹ Alec C. Morgan, ‘Report of survey: Miami, Florida, for the Division of Research and Statistic, Home Owners Loan Corporation, Washington D.C.’, 19 Sep. 1938, 2, Record Group 195, Records of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, Home Owners Loan Corporation, Records relating to the City Survey File, 1935–40, Entry 39, ‘Florida Miami’ folder, box 81, National Archives Records Administration II, College Park, MD; Harland Bartholomew and Associates, City Planning Consultants, St Louis, Missouri, ‘A preliminary report upon population, land uses and zoning, Miami Beach, Florida’ (1940), 24.

²⁰ Bramson, Speedway to Sunshine, 96, 100, 103, 104; Greater Miami Chamber of Commerce, ‘First Seaboard passenger train is heralded by capitalists as proof of Miami's greatness’, The Miamian, 7 (1927), 10, 33; Wilhelmina Jennings interview, conducted by N.D.B. Connolly, 3 Feb. 2006 (audio recoding in author's possession); Frazure, Hoyt, Memories of Old Miami (Miami, 1965), 26Google Scholar; ‘Miami prosperous when hit by storm’, New York Times, 21 Sep. 1926, 3.

²¹ Brown, William E. Jr, ‘Pan Am: Miami's wings to the world’, Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue (1998), 144–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²² Ibid., 154–7.

²³ A trip from Washington DC, to Caracas, Venezuela, took five days by steam ship in 1929; ten years later the same trip took only eight hours by Pan Am flight; Pan American World Airways, Inc. Records, Accession I (B), box 200, folder 18, Aviation Magazine (Mar. 1939), 16–17, special collections, ORL; correspondence from A.E. Curtis, public relations director of Pan-American Airways to Andrew Bloodworth, Miami city manager, 21 Nov. 1941, Office of the Miami city clerk, 7 Jan. 1942, Resolutions and Minutes of the City Commission, 1921–1986, box 28, State Archives of Florida, Tallahassee, FL (hereafter SAF).

²⁴ Florida, in fact, had more cities served by direct air transportation than any other state in the United States; Caldwell, Thomas P., ‘The history of air transportation in Florida’, Tequesta, 1 (1941), 103–6Google Scholar.

²⁵ Peréz, Louis A. Jr, ‘Between encounter and experience: Florida in the Cuban imagination’, Florida Historical Quarterly, 82 (2003), 170–90Google Scholar; correspondence from A.E. Curtis, public relations director of Pan-American Airways to Andrew Bloodworth, Miami city manager, 21 Nov. 1941, office of the Miami city clerk, 7 Jan. 1942, Resolutions and Minutes of the City Commission, 1921–1986, box 28, SAF.

²⁶ Van Vleck, Jennifer L., ‘The “logic of the air”: aviation and the globalism of the “American Century”‘, New Global Studies, 1 (2007), 1–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁷ Miami Chamber of Commerce, Meeting Minutes of Aviation Division, 28 May 1946, Committee Meetings Minutes vol. 2 (1941–1946); Miami Chamber of Commerce, Minutes of Publicity Committee Meeting, 18 Jun. 1940, Committee Meetings Minutes vol. 1 (1939–1941); Miami Chamber of Commerce, Meeting of the Tour Bureau and Transportation Representatives, 12 Dec. 1941, Committee Meetings Minutes vol. 2 (1941–1946); Miami Chamber of Commerce, Meeting Minutes of Pan-American Committee, 4 Dec. 1942, Committee Meetings Minutes vol. 2 (1941–1946), Greater Miami Chamber of Commerce collection, Charles W. Tebeau Library, Historical Association of Southern Florida, Miami, FL (hereafter HASF).

²⁸ Irish, Marian D., ‘Foreign policy and the South’, Journal of Politics, 10 (1948), 306–26, 306–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; United States Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation in the United States, vol. II, ‘Shipments by vessel’, 1947, cited in Irish, ‘Foreign policy and the South’, 316; A. Curtis Wilgus, ‘Summary report on inter-American center activities in Florida’, (1946), 6, A. Curtis Wilgus Papers, box 56, folder 510, ORL.

²⁹ Correspondence from Charles A. Lindbergh to Juan Terry Trippe, 20 Aug. 1937, Pan American World Airways, Inc. Records, Accession I (B), box 29, folder 20, ORL; Miami Chamber of Commerce, Industrial Development Division, Miami Key Facts: An Industrial Survey (1949), 15; Irish, ‘Foreign policy and the South’, 306–26, 307, 316.

³⁰ Rodgers, Daniel, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA, 2000)Google Scholar; Berger, Mark T., ‘Civilising the south: the US rise to hegemony in the Americas and the roots of “Latin American Studies”, 1898–1945’, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 12 (1993), 1–48, 31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lockey, Joseph B., ‘The meaning of Pan Americanism’, American Journal of International Law, 19 (1925), 104–17, 105CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Scott, James Brown, ‘Good Neighbor policy’, American Journal of International Law, 30 (1936), 287–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an effective comparison of the racial implications of Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt's domestic and foreign policy, see Gerstle, Gary, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, 2001), esp. chs. 1–4Google Scholar.

³¹ On government modifications of Jim Crow's racial rules during the ‘Good Neighbor’ moment, see Thomas A. Guglielmo, ‘Fighting for Caucasian rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the transnational struggle for civil rights in World War II Texas’, Journal of American History, 92 (2006), 1212–37; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr Saavedra Lamas of Argentina, quoted in Scott, ‘Good Neighbor policy’, 290; ‘April-time will be fiesta-time in Miami’, Miami Business, Mar. 1947 (no page number provided); Miami Chamber of Commerce, Minutes of Committee on Pan American Relations, 18 Sep. 1942, Committee Meetings Minutes vol. 2 (1941–1946), Greater Miami Chamber of Commerce collection, HASF; Time magazine quoted in correspondence from Charles Sykes, executive director of the Pan American League to A.B. Curry, Miami city manager, 7 Dec. 1944, Office of the Miami city clerk, Agenda Point 17, ‘Simon Bolivar Memorial’, 17 Jan. 1945, Resolutions and Minutes of the City Commission, 1921–1986, box 31; Resolutions 21401 and 21402, 4 May 1949, Resolutions and Minutes of the City Commission, 1921–1986, box 37, SAF.

³² Rose, Chanelle, ‘The “jewel” of the South?: Miami, Florida and the NAACP's struggle for civil rights in America's vacation paradise’, Florida Historical Quarterly, 86 (2007), 39–69Google Scholar; idem, ‘Neither southern nor northern: Miami, Florida and the black freedom struggle in America's tourist paradise (1896–1968)’, University of Miami Ph.D. thesis, 2008, 183–4.

³³ Wilgus, ‘Summary report on inter-American center activities in Florida’, 7. Of the many sides of Latin travel to the US at mid-century see Burgos, Adrian Jr, Playing America's Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley, 2007)Google Scholar; and Hoffnung-Garskof, A Tale of Two Cities. See also Brock, Lisa and Fuentes, Digna Castañeda, Between Race and Empire: African-Americans and Cubans before the Cuban Revolution (Philadelphia, 1998)Google Scholar; ‘Dr. Sawyer to build $40,000 hotel at Miami’, Chicago Defender, 27 Aug. 1921, 1.

³⁴ ‘Florida insults Stenio Vincent’, Pittsburgh Courier, 16 Dec. 1939, 1. The early framers of the field of Latin American studies often included celebratory accounts of Haitian history in an effort to fold Haiti into the sphere of American influence; ‘The story of Henri Christophe, King of Haiti’, Pan American Junior Review, 1 (14 Apr. 1942), 1, 3; A. Curtis Wilgus Papers, box 64, folder 608, ORL. On African-American/Haitian negotiations of Pan Americanism and Cold War foreign policy, see Millery Polyne, ‘“What happens in Haiti has repercussions which far transcend Haiti itself”: Walter White, Haiti, and the public relations campaign, 1947–1955’, Wadabagei: A Journal of the Caribbean and its Diaspora 8, no. 3 (Fall 2005), 75–101.

³⁵ ‘Represents major line’, Chicago Defender, 11 May 1946, 9; ‘Pan American Lines boasts of race equality policy’, Chicago Defender, 16 February 1946, 3; Lowe, ‘Miami’, 13.

³⁶ ‘Dr. Austin stricken; improves’, Pittsburgh Courier, 16 May 1953, 1; ‘Miami prejudice awaits Baptists’, Pittsburgh Courier, 5 Sep. 1953, 1; ‘Insurance men head for Miami’, Pittsburgh Courier, 19 Sep. 1953, 1; ‘State TB workers invited to Health Education Institute’, Atlanta Daily World, 22 Aug. 1952, 5; ‘Florist to form national group’, Atlanta Daily World, 2 Apr. 1953, 2.

³⁷ Wilfred McKenzie interviewed by N.D.B. Connolly, 3 Feb. 2006 (audiotape in author's possession); McLeod, Mary, ‘Undesirable aliens: race, ethnicity, and nationalism in the comparison of Haitian and British West Indian immigrant workers in Cuba, 1912–1939’, Journal of Social History, 31 (1998), 599–623CrossRefGoogle Scholar; ‘Famous artist Jim Crowed in Miami airport’, New York Amsterdam News, 18 Mar. 1944, A5; Jackie Reemes, ‘Haitian engineer assaulted in Miami’, New York Amsterdam News, 14 Aug. 1948, 17.

³⁸ Henry Grattan Doyle, ‘A realistic approach to practical inter-Americanism’, paper delivered to the Pan-American League of Miami, 10 Jan. 1945, reprinted in Hispania, 28 (1947), 208–9.

³⁹ City Planning Board of Miami, Miami's Railway Terminal Problem (Miami: City Planning Board of Miami, 1941), 9.

⁴⁰ ‘Pleasure dome’, Time, 19 Feb. 1940, 18–19; 1941 Time magazine article quoted in correspondence from Charles Sykes, executive director of the Pan American League to A.B. Curry, Miami city manager, 7 Dec. 1944, office of the Miami city clerk, Agenda Point 17, ‘Simon Bolivar memorial’, 17 Jan. 1945, Resolutions and Minutes of the City Commission, 1921–1986, box 31, SAF.

⁴¹ City Planning Board of Miami, Miami's Railway Terminal Problem, 9, 14; National Urban League, A Review of Economic and Cultural Problems in Dade County, Florida as They Relate to Conditions in the Negro Population (New York, 1943), 29.