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Nuclear war and the city: perspectives on municipal interventions in defence (Great Britain, New Zealand, West Germany, USA, 1980–1985)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 July 2015

SUSANNE SCHREGEL
SUSANNE SCHREGEL*
Affiliation:
a.r.t.e.s. Graduate School for the Humanities Cologne, University of Cologne, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, 50923 Köln, Germany
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Abstract:

Focusing on the example of municipal interventions in defence, this article proposes to evaluate the role of cities and towns in Cold War policies. It discusses how, in the early 1980s, residents in Great Britain, New Zealand, West Germany and the USA claimed responsibility for defence and (dis)armament policies in the name of their respective city or home town. To justify this claim, protagonists not only portrayed urban settlements as probable targets of nuclear war. They also highlighted cities and towns as concrete places and drew attention to locality as a scale that might bear specific potentials for participation and empowerment. Yet a closer analysis of such initiatives in the four countries reveals that municipal activities for peace and disarmament developed in far more complex spatial relations than references to the ‘local’ as a scale of involvement might imply.

Type
Research Article
Information
Urban History , Volume 42 , Issue 4 , November 2015 , pp. 564 - 583
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

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References

1 ‘Nuclear free New York City’, The New Abolitionist. Newsletter of Nuclear Free America, 5 (1984), 1.

2 ‘No to nuclear free zone’, Cambridge Independent, 10 May 1983, Larry Ross papers (LRP), MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

3 For instance in the 1950s and 1960s opposition to nuclear arms and nuclear weapons tests. On British municipalities in the 1950s, see D. Regan, The New City Republics. Municipal Intervention in Defence, Institute for European Defence and Strategic Studies, Occasional Paper no. 30 (London, 1987), 11; A. Howe, ‘No minister! Councils that won't play the nuclear game’, Sanity, Sep. 1984, 30–2. For West Germany in the 1950s, see Schregel, S., Der Atomkrieg vor der Wohnungstür. Eine Politikgeschichte der neuen Friedensbewegung in der Bundesrepublik 1970–1985 (Frankfurt a. M. and New York, 2011), 298–300Google Scholar. Some Japanese examples from the 1950s to the 1970s are cited in Asami, T., ‘Nuclear free Japan’, New Abolitionist, 2 (1984), 4Google Scholar; ‘Nuclear free Japan’, New Abolitionist, 2 (1985), 7. On municipal interventions in the 1970s protest against the neutron bomb in the Netherlands, see van den Berg, D., ‘Kommunale Friedenspolitik in den Niederlanden’, in Gugel, G. and Jäger, U. (eds.), Handbuch kommunale Friedensarbeit (Tübingen, 1988), 210Google Scholar.

4 These antagonistic positions can be illustrated by Shuman, M.H., ‘Dateline main street. Local foreign policies’, Foreign Policy, 65 (1986/87), 156–7Google Scholar; Regan, The New City Republics.

5 But see the recent publications Leadbeater, M., Peace, Power & Politics. How New Zealand Became Nuclear Free (Dunedin, 2013), 69–78Google Scholar; Schregel, Atomkrieg, 267–328 (on the West German nuclear free zone movement). For accounts from a local and regional perspective, see Miller, B.A., Geography and Social Movements. Comparing Antinuclear Activism in the Boston Area (Minneapolis and London, 2000), 156–60 (on the ‘Nuclear Free Cambridge’ campaign)Google Scholar; Payling, D., ‘“Socialist Republic of South Yorkshire.” Grassroots activism and left-wing solidarity in 1980s Sheffield’, Twentieth Century British History, 25 (2014), 614–17 (on Sheffield City Council)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kemper, C., ‘Als die Entrüstung begann. Bürgerprotest, atomwaffenfreie Zonen und große Politik in Hamburg in den 1980er Jahren’, in Forschungsstelle für Zeitgeschichte in Hamburg (ed.), 19 Tage Hamburg. Ereignisse und Entwicklungen der Stadtgeschichte seit den fünfziger Jahren (Hamburg, 2012), 233–48 (on Hamburg)Google Scholar.

6 Cornago, N., ‘Diplomacy and paradiplomacy in the redefinition of international security. Dimensions of conflict and co-operation’, Regional and Federal Studies, 1 (1999), 40–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hocking, B., Localizing Foreign Policy. Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy (New York, 1993), 1–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 See, for instance, Mooney, J.E. Pieper and Lanza, F., ‘Introduction: de-centering Cold War history’, in Mooney, J.E. Pieper and Lanza, F. (eds.), De-Centering Cold War History. Local and Global Change (London and New York, 2013), 1–7Google Scholar, with the proposal ‘to explore the multilayered complexities of its history by emphasizing the power individual acts, personal decisions, or local-level actions acquired in the midst of superpower politics’. Similarly, Stromquist, S., ‘Introduction: was all (Cold War) politics local?’, in Stromquist, S. (ed.), Labor's Cold War. Local Politics in a Global Context (Urbana, 2008), 3Google Scholar, argues that ‘[l]ocal actors become historical agents of some significance beyond the boundaries of their own communities. In some sense, the national and international stories are driven by the conflicts that played out in local settings.’ Engel, J.A. and Carté Engel, K., ‘Introduction: on writing the local within diplomatic history. Trends, historiography, purpose’, in Engel, J.A. (ed.), Local Consequences of the Global Cold War (Washington, DC, 2007), 20, stress the ‘domestic impact of diplomacy’Google Scholar.

8 The collection (abbreviated as SCPC) comprises material from several peace initiatives such as Nuclear Free America or the Nuclear Free Zone Registry.

9 This archive (abbreviated as LSE) holds material on peace campaigning, for instance from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).

10 The archive (cited as MCC) provides information about municipal nuclear free zone initiatives in Great Britain.

11 Holding the LRP. The collection consists of material mostly from the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone Committee.

12 Archiv für alternatives Schrifttum Duisburg (afas); Archiv des Hamburger Instituts für Sozialforschung (HIS).

13 The collection of sources for this article has generously been funded by the Graduate School ‘Topologie der Technik’, Technical University Darmstadt, Germany.

14 On peace movements in the period in general, see Wittner, L.S., Toward Nuclear Abolition. A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1971 to the Present, III: The Struggle against the Bomb (Stanford, 2003)Google Scholar. On the emerging grassroots nuclear free zones movement that accompanied the municipal peace activities, see Schregel, S., ‘Global micropolitics. Toward a transnational history of grassroots nuclear free zones’, in Conze, E., Klimke, M. and Varon, J. (eds.), Nuclear Threats, Nuclear Fear and the Cold War of the 1980s (New York, forthcoming, 2016)Google Scholar.

15 Ziemann, B., ‘A quantum of solace? European peace movements during the Cold War and their elective affinities’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 49 (2009), 361–72Google Scholar.

16 MCC, Council Documents (May–Dec. 1980), 120.

17 MCC, M711/1/1/3, Correspondence, 1981–86. See also the map in Sanity, Apr./May 1981, title. A list of nuclear free zone local authorities in Britain in August 1984 is given in LSE CND ADD/5/11, CND, Nuclear-Free Zone Campaign Manual, Appendix 1.

18 The founding members were Avon County, Dumbarton District, the Greater London Council, Gwent County, Islington Borough, Leicester Borough, Lothian Region, Sheffield Metropolitan Borough, Tyne and Wear Metropolitan County, Wrexham Maelor District Council and Manchester City Council. See ibid., 2.

19 These comprised £80,106 given as ‘grants to unilateral disarmament organizations’, £411,289 for the GLC ‘peace year’ and £185,708 as ‘“nuclear-free zone” expenditure’. F. Hill, ‘Nuclear free – at a price’, Times, 5 Aug. 1985, 12.

20 Many of the municipal peace initiatives in West Germany are documented in Gemeinden für den Frieden. Tagung am 15. Oktober 1983 in Kassel (Kassel, 1984), afas 85.II.1984:12; Kassel, Hauptamt Stadt (ed.), Gemeinden für den Frieden. Beschlüsse zur Friedenssicherung (Kassel, 1987)Google Scholar.

21 For example the peace and reconciliation group Aktion Sühnezeichen/Friedensdienste or the leftist anti-militarist DFG-VK (Deutsche Friedensgesellschaft–Vereinigte Kriegsdienstgegner).

22 Nordrhein-Westfalen, Städte- und Gemeindebund (ed.), Bundespolitik in den Gemeinden? Dokumentation zur Einbeziehung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung in die Nachrüstungsdiskussion um den NATO-Doppelbeschluß (Düsseldorf, 1984)Google Scholar.

23 Alexander, R., Putting the Earth First. Alternatives to Nuclear Security in Pacific Island States (Honolulu, 1994), 138–64Google Scholar.

24 See Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy, 63–8, for the debate about the visit of nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed ships in New Zealand and Australia.

25 The decision was made on 17 Mar. 1981 in response to a proposal by a local women's initiative. See LRP, MB 2097, box 14, item 10, letter from T. Gunn to J. McDermott, 13 Feb. 1981; letter from J. McDermott re Nuclear Free Zone. A comprehensive analysis of New Zealand's nuclear weapon free zone movement is provided by J.L. Stone's (unpublished) thesis: ‘Rebelling by any means possible. New Zealand local government nuclear weapon free zones’ (Massey University, 2005), esp. 11–32. See also Leadbeater, Peace, 69–78.

26 LRP, MB 2097, box 12, item 6, L. Ross, ‘Brief history of the New Zealand nuclear-free zone campaign. A paper for the Asian Peace Research Association Conference in Christchurch, Jan. 31–Feb. 4, 1992’, 1–5.

27 Among others, the Stratford resolution was supported by Alexandra Borough Council, Arrowton Borough Council, Dargaville Borough Council, Devonport Borough Council, Eltham County Council, Feilding Borough Council, Foxton Borough Council, Glen Eden Borough Council, Inangahua County Council, Queenstown Borough Council. LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17; LRP, MB 2097, box 12, item 6.

28 Citation from: ‘Nuclear reply “quite rude”’, Hauraki Herald, 6 Aug. 1983. For further examples and reactions to the letter-writing campaign, see ‘Devonport's N-free letter is criticised’, Hawke's Bay Herald Tribune, 19 Jul. 1983; ‘British reply to nuclear stand upsets councillors’, Timaru Herald, 20 Jul. 1983; ‘Nuclear stand is criticised’, Westport News, 20 Jul. 1983; ‘Inangahua county gets response on nuclear issue’, Greymouth Evening Star, 22 Jul. 1983; ‘“Disappointed” reaction of Devonport councillor’, North Shore Times Advertiser, 26 Jul. 1983. All LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

29 On local anti-nuclear policies in the USA, see Bennett, G.C., The New Abolitionists. The Story of Nuclear Free Zones (Elgin, 1987)Google Scholar; Hobbs, H.H., City Hall Goes Abroad. The Foreign Policy of Local Politics (Thousand Oaks, London and New Delhi, 1994)Google Scholar; Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87); Shuman, ‘Dateline main street. Courts v. local foreign policies’, Foreign Policy, 86 (1992), 158–77.

30 Regan, The New City Republics, 36–7, states that about half the nuclear free zones that had been declared by 1987 had this status.

31 Later, some local environmental and anti-nuclear initiatives were claimed as the ‘first’ nuclear free zone campaigns in the United States. Candidates for this title were initiatives against nuclear power in Missoula/Montana (1978–80) and a petition initiative that was launched in Santa Cruz County, California, against a facility of Lockheed Missile and Space Company in 1980. See ‘Proclamation. County of Missoula’, New Abolitionist, 4 (1989), 4; ‘Missoula celebrates 10th anniversary’, New Abolitionist, 1 (1989), 4; Bennett, The New Abolitionists, 80–1; ‘Happy birthday. The first 30 years’, New Abolitionist, 1 (1988), 6.

32 Hawaii County Ordinance 665. See ‘Nuclear free Hawaii’, New Abolitionist, 4 (1983), 6–7. In a conflict arising over the visit of nuclear warship USS Ouellet in Hilo Harbor on the occasion of the ‘International Festival of the Pacific’, Hawaii County Council amended the original ordinance in July 1984 to exempt the US military from compliance. A proposal of nuclear free zone supporters to overturn the 1984 amendment and to restore the original decision from 1981 was defeated in a ballot with 65% against and 35% for the proposition in Nov. 1986. See ‘Hawaii NFZ amended’, New Abolitionist, 5 (1984), 9; ‘Legal victory in Hawaii County!’, New Abolitionist, 4 (1986), 1; ‘Voters create 6 more NFZs!’, New Abolitionist, 5 (1986), 1–2.

33 The American Nuclear Free Zone Registry counted 84 ‘nuclear free’ cities and towns in 1984, 108 in 1985 and 132 by Nov. 1986. See SCPC, CDGA Coll. box Nuclear Free Zone Registry, ‘News release: U.S. nuclear free zones – on the increase’, 17 Dec. 1984; SCPC, CDGA Coll. box Northern Sun Merchandising through Nuclear Free Zone Registry, Nuclear Free Zone Registry, ‘Population of U.S. nuclear free zone cities and counties 1981–1986’.

34 ‘Nuclear Free New York City’, New Abolitionist, 5 (1984), 1 and 5.

35 ‘Chicago!’, New Abolitionist, 2 (1985), 1.

36 Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 154, 159–60, 165.

37 Björkdahl, A., ‘Urban peacebuilding’, Peacebuilding, 2 (2013), 207–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 ‘Call for bays to be nuclear-free’, North Shore Times Advertiser, 10 May 1983. See LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

39 ‘Hokianga County bans nuclear weapons’, Northern News – Kaikohe, 29 Mar. 1984. Ibid. See also the quotation in n. 2.

40 ‘Nuclear Free Takoma Park’, New Abolitionist, 1 (1984), 2.

41 ‘Nuclear issues make councils “look silly”’, LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

42 For instance, ‘more would be achieved if these people. . .got on their knees and prayed’, or: ‘Let's ban sister A. . .instead’ (who introduced a nuclear free zone ordinance). First quote from ‘Awaiting peace petition’, Southland Times, 29 Jun. 1983, LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17; second quote from ‘Just what city needs’ (Saginaw News, 17 Mar. 1985), New Abolitionist, 3 (1985), 4.

43 Schregel, Atomkrieg, 300–5; Bilder, R.B., ‘The role of states and cities in foreign relations’, American Journal of International Law, 4 (1989), 821–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1992); R.J. Tong and J.L. McDermott, ‘Nuclear free zones’, LRP, MB 2097, box 14, item 10.

44 On the relevance of space, place and scale for social movements and contentious politics, see Miller, Geography; Newstead, C., Reid, C.K. and Sparke, M., ‘The cultural geography of scale’, in Anderson, K., Domosh, M., Pile, S. and Thrift, N. (eds.), Handbook of Cultural Geography (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi, 2003), 485–97Google Scholar.

45 Peacelink New Zealand, Aug. 1983, 12.

46 Kohlrausch, M. and Hoffmann, S.-L., ‘Introduction: post-catastrophic cities’, Journal of Modern European History, 9 (2011), 308–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Bishop, R., Clancey, G.K. and Phillips, J., ‘Cities as targets’, in Bishop, R., Clancey, G.K. and Phillips, J. (eds.), The City as Target (London and New York, 2012), 4–5Google Scholar.

48 Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 158, names East and West Berlin, Coventry, Dresden, Guernica, Hiroshima and Verdun.

49 Scott, G., How to Get Rid of the Bomb. A Peace Action Handbook (Oxford, 1982), 76Google Scholar.

50 Ibid., 77.

51 Ibid.

52 DFG-VK in Zusammenarbeit mit DFG-VK Landesvorstand Bremen-Niedersachsen (eds.), Atomwaffenfreie Städte – aber wie?, part 1, 2nd edn (Essen, 1983), 23–8, HIS SBe 544; SCPC CDGA Coll. box Northern Sun Merchandising through Nuclear Free Zone Registry, Nuclear Free America, nuclear free zone organizing packets, packet 1, 3–7.

53 Examples are Leeds and the Bomb; Target Hackney; South Yorkshire and Nuclear War; South Glamorgan and Nuclear Weapons; Emergency Planning and Nuclear War in Greater Manchester; Kirklees and the Bomb; Bristol and the Bomb; Bradford – The Day After. Regan, The New City Republics, 18–21; CND, Nuclear-Free Zone Campaign Manual, 16–17; Sanity, Sep. 1984, 41.

54 Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 159, names San Francisco, Cambridge, MA, and Boulder, CO.

55 See for instance Stafford, J., ‘“Stay at home”. The politics of nuclear civil defence, 1968–83’, Twentieth Century British History, 3 (2012), 398–404Google Scholar. Local resolutions in New Zealand also referred to civil defence issues, but the topic was apparently less important than in Great Britain, Germany and the USA. Influential in this context was the Christchurch City Council resolution.

56 As a practical instruction for such activities (which were often recommended in the United States), see SCPC CDGA Coll. box Northern Sun Merchandising through Nuclear Free Zone Registry, Nuclear Free America, nuclear free zone organizing packets, packet 1, ‘Think globally, act locally, invest peacefully’.

57 LSE END/Temp/320, Greater London Council, London as a Nuclear Free Zone.

58 LSE END/Temp/320, Disarming the Oceans. International Resistance to the Nuclear Navies; ‘Nuclear free. . . well almost’, Inner City News, 2 Aug. 1983; ‘Devonport council wants change of anchorage’, North Shore Times Advertiser, 2 Aug. 1983, both LRP MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

59 SCPC, CDGA, Mobilization for survival, box 2, Local branch/office Cambridge, R. Schreuer and E. Segal, ‘Organizing for a nuclear free Cambridge’.

60 Ibid.

61 SCPC CDGA Coll. box Northern Sun Merchandising through Nuclear Free Zone Registry, Nuclear Free America, nuclear free zone organizing packets, packet 1, 13.

62 For instance in New York, Milwaukee (USA), Avon, Derbyshire, Manchester, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nottinghamshire (GB). Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 159–60; Regan, The New City Republics, 26–7.

63 Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 161; Hobbs, City Hall, 28.

64 MCC M711/3/9, Nuclear Free Wales, 1981–85, Ceredigion District Council, Letter 15 Jul. 1981; Dyfed City Council, Letter 5 May 1981. On the background, see T. Shaw, ‘The BBC, the state and Cold War culture. The case of television's The War Game (1965)’, English Historical Review, 121 (2006), 1351–84.

65 S. Haumann and S. Schregel, ‘Andere Räume, andere Städte, und die Transformation der Gesellschaft. Hausbesetzungen und Atomwaffenfreie Zonen als alternative Raumpraktiken’, in Balz, H. and Friedrichs, J.-H. (eds.), ‘All we ever wanted’. Eine Kulturgeschichte europäischer Protestbewegungen der 1980er Jahre (Berlin, 2012), 53–72, 68–9Google Scholar; ‘Nuclear free zone signs installed in Garrett Park’, New Abolitionist, 6 (1983), 5; ‘St. Helena, CA’, New Abolitionist, 5 (1984), 3; ‘Nuclear free zone sign stolen, suspect apprehended’, New Abolitionist, 2 (1985), 12; ‘NFZ souvenirs’, Nuclear Free Zone Bulletin, 5 (1985), 7; ‘Nuke-free signs for city’, Wanganui Chronicle, 15 Nov. 1983; ‘“No nukes” sign ok with council’, Wanganui Herald, 11 Nov. 1983. Both articles from LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

66 Examples are given in ‘Nuclear vote in!’, S.W. News, 3 May 1984; ‘Bus signs to urge “peace”’, Star, 22 Jun. 1983 (‘These stickers will be educational and our buses will be ambassadors of peace. Buses will carry the message of peace to people in Waimari’). Both articles from LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17.

67 See, for instance, CND, Nuclear-Free Zone Campaign Manual, 10 (mentioning a ‘cherry tree planting ceremony’ at the first international NFZ conference 1984, Manchester, GB); ‘Peace group wants signs marking zone’, Hawke's Bay Herald Tribune (Hastings), 29 Nov. 1983, LRP, MB 2097, box 10, item 17 (stating the ‘planting of an olive tree’ to celebrate Napier City Council's nuclear-free decision); ‘Proposal for Christchurch to be declared a peace city’ (2002), LRP, MB 2097, box 16, item 4 (referring to the planting of a ‘peace tree to commemorate the UN International Year of Peace’ 1986); ‘Hiroshima and Nagasaki remembered’, Nuclear Free Zone Bulletin, 6 (1985), 2 (mentioning the opening of peace gardens and parks as well as cherry tree plantings in Merseyside, Newcastle, Durham, Redditch and Hackney, Great Britain, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).

68 Some examples are discussed in Duffy, T., ‘Civic zones of peace’, Peace Review, 2 (1997), 199–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gough, P., ‘From heroes’ groves to parks of peace. Landscapes of remembrance, protest and peace’, Landscape Research, 2 (2000), 216–20Google Scholar.

69 In April 1984, a first international nuclear free local authority conference took place in Manchester. Further international conferences were organized in Cordoba/Spain (1985), Perugia/Italy (1986), Eugene/Oregon (USA) (1989) and Glasgow/Scotland (1990). An International Steering Committee of nuclear free local authorities, established in 1984, promoted further transnational co-operation.

70 Alger, C.F., ‘The world relations of cities. Closing the gap between social science paradigms and everyday human experience’, International Studies Quarterly, 34 (1990), 506CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schregel, Atomkrieg, 307–10; Regan, The New City Republics, 39–50; Shuman, ‘Dateline main street’ (1986/87), 159; Hobbs, City Hall, 28.

71 www.mayorsforpeace.org, accessed 12 Dec. 2013.

72 While Atlanta, Chicago, Concord, New Haven and San Francisco were chosen for the USA, as well as Brighton and Hove and Sheffield for Great Britain, neither municipalities from New Zealand nor from West Germany were represented in this initiative before the end of the Cold War. www.iapmc.org/member-cities/years-of-joining, accessed 12 Dec. 2013; Statute of the International Association of Peace Messenger Cities (2012), www.iapmc.org/about-us/statute-of-the-international-association-of-peace-messenger-cities, accessed 13 Dec. 2013.

73 Kirby, A., Marston, S. and Seasholes, K., ‘World cities and global communities. The municipal foreign policy movement and new roles for cities’, in Knox, P.L. and Taylor, P.J. (eds.), World Cities in a World-System (Cambridge, 1995), 267–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar, place the US foreign policy movement in the context of the ‘world city’ debate and emphasize the role that even small towns could assume as ‘active players on the global stage’. A summary of debates about a new localism and politics of scale is given by Clarke, N., ‘In what sense “spaces of neoliberalism”? The new localism, the new politics of scale, and town twinning’, Political Geography, 28 (2009), 496–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 B. Kent, ‘Nuclear-free zones’, Times, 12 Aug. 1985, 11.

75 On these conflicts, see, for instance, D. Walker, ‘“Nuclear free” councils will be forced into civil defence role’, Times, 22 Oct. 1983, 2; F. Barker, ‘Civil defence – new rules’, Sanity, Sep. 1984, 5; ‘Home office ultimatum’, Nuclear Free Zone Bulletin, 9 (1986), 1.

76 Bundesminister der Verteidigung, Kernwaffenfreie Zonen? Argumente zu einem aktuellen Thema (1984), afas 90.II.1980:41.

77 Latta, S., ‘The ballot or blockade’, Survival Bulletin, 2 (1985), 7Google Scholar.

78 Leadbeater, Peace, 129–43, 168–75, 185–8.

79 Ibid.

80 L. Ross, ‘List of nuclear weapon free zones declared since map 1st June 1984’, LRP, MB 2097, box 15, item 14.

81 For instance when the secretary of the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone Committee rather smugly quoted a US-guest lecturer: ‘New Zealand is the only country in the world where democracy is working – where government listens to the voice of the people on nuclear issues.’ Ibid.