Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T20:25:01.941Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The making of the central markets of Dakar and Kinshasa: from colonial origins to the post-colonial period

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2015

LUCE BEECKMANS
Affiliation:
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Ghent University, Belgium
LIORA BIGON
Affiliation:
The Institute of Western Cultures, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus 91905, Jerusalem, Israel

Abstract

This article traces the planning history of two central marketplaces in sub-Saharan Africa, in Dakar and Kinshasa, from their French and Belgian colonial origins until the post-colonial period. In the (post-)colonial city, the marketplace has always been at the centre of contemporary debates on urban identity and spatial production. Using a rich variety of sources, this article makes a contribution to a neglected area of scholarship, as comparative studies on planning histories in sub-Saharan African cities are still rare. It also touches upon some key issues such as the multiple and often intricate processes of urban agency between local and foreign actors, sanitation and segregation, the different (post-)colonial planning cultures and their limits and the role of indigenous/intermediary groups in spatial contestation and reappropriation.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For exceptions, see Beeckmans, L., ‘Making the African city: Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Kinshasa, 1920–80’, Groningen University Ph.D. thesis, 2012Google Scholar, in Dutch; Bigon, L., A History of Urban Planning in Two West African Colonial Capitals: Residential Segregation in British Lagos and French Dakar (1850–1930) (Lewiston, 2009)Google Scholar; Njoh, A.J., Planning Power (London, 2007)Google Scholar; Myers, G., Verandahs of Power (New York, 2003)Google Scholar; Goerg, O., Pouvoir colonial, municipalités et espaces urbains: Conakry-Freetown des années 1880–1914 (Paris, 1997)Google Scholar; C. Nunes Silva (ed.), Urban Planning in Sub-Saharan Afroca: Colonial and Post-Colonial Planning Cultures (New York, 2015).

2 Coquery-Vidrovitch, C., The History of African Cities South of the Sahara: From the Origins to Colonization, trans. Baker, M. (Princeton, 2005), 20–5Google Scholar.

3 Centre des Archives d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence (CAOM), FM SG SEN/XII/12, Plan des alignements de la ville de Dakar, 1863 (1862).

4 Seck, A., Dakar, Métropole, ouest-africaine (Dakar, 1970), 129Google Scholar.

5 This market was situated on a roundabout next to the railway, in front of the Post Office. Information provided by A. Lumenganeso, head of the Archives Nationales du Congo, Kinshasa (ARNACO), Jun. 2008.

6 In 1932, the railway was moved to the African quarter and was replaced by the ‘Boulevard Albert I’, the actual ‘Boulevard de 30 Juin’. ARNACO, Gouvernement Général (GG) 7/54.

7 The new market building was located on the Place du Marché; the exploitation of the market was in the hands of the bank Crédit Foncier Africain. Africa-Archives, Brussels (AAB), GG 10.008.

8 AAB, GG 7.341, plans with notes (1933). For more about these intermediary figures, see Balandier, G., Sociologie actuelle de l’Afrique noire: dynamique des changements sociaux en Afrique centrale (Paris, 1955)Google Scholar; Giordano, R., Belges et Italiens du Congo-Kinshasa (Paris, 2008)Google Scholar; Rahmani, M., Juifs du Congo: la confiance et l’espoir (Brussels, 2008).Google Scholar

9 The Luso-African and métis are the descendants of the pre-colonial Portuguese and French merchants living in the old urban settlements in Senegal and its environs. The Lebanese had been migrating to West Africa since the 1890s, and their arrival was facilitated by French suzerainty in both areas.

10 Betts, R., ‘The establishment of the Medina in Dakar, Senegal, 1914’, Africa, 2 (1971), 143–53, at 143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11 Seck, Dakar, 129.

12 M’Bokolo, E., ‘Peste et société urbaine a Dakar: l’épidemie de 1914’, Cahiers d’Études africaines, 12 (1982), 1346;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Archives nationales du Sénégal, Dakar (ANS), H55, Peste à Dakar, 1914.

13 Echenberg, M., Black Death, White Medicine: Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal, 1914 –45 (Portsmouth, 2002), 95.Google Scholar

14 Coquery-Vidrovitch, C., ‘Émeutes urbaines, grèves générales et décolonisation en Afrique française’, in Ageron, R. (ed.), Les chemins de la decolonisation de l’empire français, 1936–56 (Paris, 1986), 493504, at 493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15 ANS, 4P 1499: Construction du Marché de Sandaga, 1924–26.

16 Wittlesey, D., ‘Dakar and other Cape Verde settlements’, Geographical Review, 31, 4 (1941), 609–38, at 631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17 The term ‘sanitation syndrome’ was first used in a South African context: Swanson, M., ‘The sanitation syndrome: bubonic plague and urban native policy in the Cape Colony, 1900–9’, Journal of African History, 18 (1977), 387410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18 AAB, GG 7.052; n.a., ‘Au comité urbain’, Le Courrier d’Afrique, 19 Mar. 1931.

19 Schoentjes, R., ‘Considérations générales sur l’urbanisme au Congo belge’, Institut Royal Colonial Belge: Bulletin des Séances, 4 (1933), 528–72;Google Scholar AAB, SPA 17913. See also De Meulder, B., Kuvuande Mbote. Een Eeuw Koloniale Architectuur en Stedenbouw in Kongo (Antwerp, 2000).Google Scholar

20 All the members of the Comité Urbain were designated by the governor general and not elected. Mulumba, C., ‘Origines et évolution des institutions communales et urbaines au Congo’, Congo-Afrique, 29 (1968), 449–57.Google Scholar

21 AAB, GG 10.008, GG 7.052, GG 7.341, GG 16.262.

22 AAB, GG 7.341, lettre du 20 avr. 1933 du ‘commissaire urbain’ au ‘medicin hygiéniste’; GG 10.008; GG 7.052; GG 7.341.

23 ARNACO, C.A.E./Léo, D 51, 1928: ‘Lettre d’un plaignant blanc’; AAB, GG 10.008, n.a., ‘Un marché qui n’est pas à sa place’, Courrier d’Afrique, Jan. 1942.

24 AAB, GG 10.008, GG 5.367; Capelle, E., La cite indigene de Léopoldville (Léopoldville/Elisabethville, 1947).Google Scholar

25 AAB, Library, n.a., ‘L’inauguration du nouveau marché de Léo’, Le Courrier d’Afrique, Jan. 1944.

26 Person, Y., ‘French West Africa and decolonization’, 141–72Google Scholar, and Stengers, J., ‘Precipitous decolonization: the case of the Belgian Congo’, 305–35Google Scholar, both in Gifford, P. and Louis, W.R. (eds.), The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization, 1940–60 (New Haven, 1982).Google Scholar

27 Young, C., The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1994), 208.Google Scholar

28 For an overview of post-war urban planning in Dakar, see Beeckmans, L., ‘Making the African city’, 112–53.Google Scholar The post-war ‘mission d’urbanisme du Cap Vert’ (1945) consisted of three French architects: J. Lambert, A. Gutton and R. Lopez.

29 The low-income Europeans did not constitute a social ‘class’, as in Algeria or South Africa, and were few in number. This racial and socio-economic zoning was not explicit but only implied in the urban plans, by marking the different zones with a letter that corresponded with an area's destination/ building type.

30 CAOM, FM, 1 tp/1101, Dakar: plan d’aménagement et d’extension, 1941.

31 Angrand, A.P., Les Lébous de la presqu’ile du Cap-Vert (Dakar, 1946), 131;Google ScholarRau, E., ‘La question des terrains de Tound’, Annales Africaines, 1 (1956), 141–63, at 157.Google Scholar

32 Mutamba, M.K., Du Congo belge au Congo indépendant, 1940–1960: émergence des ‘évolués’ et génèse du nationalisme (Kinshasa, 1998).Google Scholar

33 Ricquier, G., ‘L’urbanisation de Léopoldville’, in Ministère des Colonies (ed.), L’urbanisme au Congo belge (Brussels, 1951); AAB, 3e DG, 195.Google Scholar

34 Ibid., 67.

35 AAB, GG 7.205: M. Heymans, lettre du 23 fév. 1949; Extrait du compte-rendu du Comité Urbain en sa séance du 25 août 1949; ‘Note urbanisme’, M. Heymans, 13 Sep. 1949; AAB, GG 5.521, letter to the district commissioner, 14 Nov. 1950.

36 Heymans, M., ‘L’urbanisation de Léopoldville’, in L’urbanisme au Congo belgeGoogle Scholar; AAB, P05.2, PORT 24, 2, M. Heymans, ‘Plan général d’aménagement, projet, Kinshasa’, 1949.

37 n.a., ‘Léopoldville: capitale moderne et plaque tournante du commerce africain’, La Métropole, 6 Jun. 1950; ARNACO, Section Travaux Publics de Léopoldville, GG 7/98: Marché Public de Léopoldville.

38 Jewsiewicki, B., ‘Notes sur l’histoire socio-économique du Congo (1880–1960)’, Études d’Histoire Africaine, 3 (1992), 209–41;Google ScholarMutombo, D. [1954], ‘Kin-la-belle, Kin-la-folie, victoire de l’amour’, in Ngal, G. (ed.), Littératures congolaises de la RDC (1482–2007): histoire et anthologie (Paris, 2007), 162–5, at 164.Google Scholar

39 Brunschwig, H., ‘The decolonization of French black Africa’, in Giffors and Lewis (eds.), The Transfer of Power in Africa, 211–24.Google Scholar

40 Dulucq, S., La France et les villes d’Afrique noire francophone: quarante ans d’intervention (1945–85) (Paris, 1997), 71.Google Scholar

41 Young, C., Introduction à la Politique Congolaise (Brussels, 1968), 171.Google Scholar

42 Beeckmans, L., ‘The adventures of the French architect Michel Ecochard in post-independence Dakar’, Journal of Architecture, 19 (2014), 849–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 On the French involvement in Dakar's post-colonial planning, see Beeckmans, , ‘Making the African city’, 161–84, 219–32.Google Scholar SICAP stands for ‘Société Immobilière du Cap Vert’, OHLM stands for ‘Office des Habitations à Loyer Modéré’.

44 Arecchi, A., ‘City profile: Dakar’, Cities, 2 (1985), 198211, at 203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 Situated on Dakar's seafront corniche, this multi-million-dollar development, completed in 2009 and supported by the World Bank, includes leisure and commercial facilities.

46 Lyons, M. and Snoxell, S., ‘Sustainable urban livelihoods and marketplace social capital: crisis and strategy in petty trade’, Urban Studies, 42 (2005), 1301–20, at 1306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

47 Babou, Ch.A., ‘Urbanizing mystical Islam: making Mourid space in the cities of Senegal’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 40 (2007), 197223, at 210–14;Google Scholar n.a., ‘Riposte à la destruction de Petersen: les marchands ambulants à l’assaut de Sandaga’, AllAfrica, 12 Nov. 2011.

48 For more about its architecture, see Bigon, L. and Sinou, A., ‘The quest for colonial style in French West Africa: prefabricating Marché Kermel and Sandaga’, Urban History, 39 (2013), 709–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

49 The ‘time bomb’ imagery was repeated in our talks with several vendors there in 2007. See also Ka, S., ‘Protection civile: Sandaga réserve mille et une surprises aux experts’, Agence de Presse Sénégalaise, 10 Nov. 2012.Google Scholar

50 Mane, B., ‘Pape Diop ordonne l’évacuation de Sandaga’, AllAfrica, 2 Mar. 2006;Google ScholarToure, P.A., ‘Marché Sandaga: un patrimoine en ruines’, La Gazette, 7 Jun. 2009.Google Scholar

51 Gerard, M. (ed.), Planification, habitat, information (special issue), 81 (1975), 1101.Google Scholar

52 The Matonge area has been regarded as the heart of Kinshasa since World War II.

53 Today, with close to 10 million inhabitants, Kinshasa is still the most populated agglomeration of sub-Saharan Africa after Lagos. Dakar has close to 3 million inhabitants.

54 Flouriot, J.et al. (eds.), Atlas de Kinshasa (Paris, 1978).Google Scholar

55 Beeckmans, L., ‘French planning in a former Belgian colony: a critical analysis of the French urban planning missions in post-independence Kinshasa’, OASE, 82 (2010), 5576.Google Scholar

56 To enable its construction, the marketplace was temporally transferred to the zone where the MFU planned the new city centre and where Chinese investors built the Palais du Peuple in 1979 and the Stade des Martyrs de la Pentecôte in 1990.

57 de Maximy, R., Kinshasa: ville en suspens (Paris, 1984), 192.Google Scholar

58 Data provided by Ch. Mboyo, the Superviseur principal en charge de l’assainissement du Marché Central, Jun. 2008. The zaïrianization means the nationalization of the Congolese land and natural resources during the 1970s by President Mobutu.

59 Bouchard, H., Commerçants de Kinshasa pour survivre (Paris, 2002), 193210.Google Scholar

60 This information is based on several interviews with the market's street children in 2008. See also De Boeck, F. and Plissart, M.F., Kinshasa: Tales of the Invisible City (Ghent, 2004).Google Scholar

61 Bateko, D., ‘Les avenues Université et Luambo Makiadi impraticables’, Le Potentiel, 4238 (2008).Google Scholar